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HISTORY 



MIDDLE AGES. 



ADAPTED- Fl^aj, THE FRENCH OF 

REV. P. F.'GAZEAU, SJ. 



WITH REVIEW QUESTIONS ADDED. 




^^- '//till 

New York: 
THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO., 

9 BARCLAY STREET. 

1878. 



Copyright, 1878, by 
THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO. 






II. J. HEWITT, TRINTEP.. 27 roSE STREET, KEW YORti 



CONTENTS, 



PAGC 

Introduction to the IIistouy o? the Middle Ages, . 9 



FIRST EPOCH {595-60 J,). 

CHAPTER I. 

Great Invasions and fall of the Empire of the West (395- 
476), I'J' 

Section 1. Honorius (395-433)— Alaric and Eadagasius. Ssc. 
2. Valentiuiau III. (424-455)— Genseric and Attila. Sec. 3. 
Last Emperors and Confederates. 

CHAPTER 11. 

Gaul — Ascendency of the Merovingian Franks, . . 34 

Section 1. Origin of the Franks— Clovis I. (481-511). Sec. 2. 
Wars and Conquests of the Successors of Clovis to the 
death of Dagobert I. (511-G38). 

CHAPTER III. 
Great Britain — The Anglo-Saxons, 41 

CHAPTER IV. 
Spain — The Visigoths, 45 

CHAPTER V. 

Italy and the Eastern Empire, 48 

Section 1. Italy under the Heruli— Odoacer (47(>-493). Sec. 2. 
The Ostrogoths— Theodoric the Great and his Successors. 
Sec. 3. The Eastern Empire after Theodosius— Reign of 
Justinian (527-505')- Belisarius and Narses. Sec. 4. Lom- 
bards in Italy (568-774). 



4 Contents. 

CHAPTER VI. 

PAGE 

The Church and the Barbarians, 63 

Section 1. The Church confronting Heresy. Sec. 2. Conver- 
sion of the Barbarians. 



SECOND EPOCH {GOJ^SU). 

CHAPTER I. 

Ascendency of the Carlo vingians, . . , . .73 

Section 1. " Sluggard " Kings and Mayors of the Palace (G33- 
752)— Pepin of Heristal and Charles Martel. Sec. 2. Pepin 
the Short (752-708) and Charlemagne (768-814)— Foundation 
of the Temporal Power of the Popes (755)— Restoration of 
the Western Empire (8(X)). 

CHAPTER II. 

Mohammedanism — Arabian Empire, .... 85 

Section 1. IMohammcd (570-G32) and the Koran. Sec. 2. Elec- 
tive Caliphate (G32-661)— Conquests of the Arabs. Sec. 3. 
Ommiades at Damascus (GGl-750). Sec. 4. Abbassides— Dis- 
memberment of tta Caliphate. Sec. 5. Arabian Civiliza- 
tion. 

CHAPTER III. 

The Eastern Empire in the Seventh and Eighth CentUv 
ries, 109 

Section 1. Heraclian Dynasty and Monothelism. Sec. 2. Isau- 
rian Iconoclast Emperors. 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Church and Christian Civilization 116 



Contents, 

THIRD EPOCH {8U-107S), 
CHAPTER I. 



PAGE 



The Carlovingian Empire and Feudalism, . . . 123 

Section 1. Two Dismemberments of the Carlovingian Empire 
(843-888). Sec. 2. Feudal System in France and Europe 
Sec. 3. The last Carlovingiana (888-987) and the first three 
Capetian Kings (987-1060). 



CHAPTER II. 

Invasions in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, . . . 138 

Section 1. Invasions of the Saracens and Hungarians. Sec. 2. 
Invasions of the Normans into Russia, England, and the 
Carlovingian Empire— Hollo and Normandy (911). Sec. 3. 
Conquests of the French Normans— Foundation of the 
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies— William the Conqueror in 
England (106G). 

CHAPTER III. 
Germany and Italy, 160 

Section 1. The Germanic Kingdom and Northern Eaces (888- 
962). Sec. 2. Italy and the Western Empire (888-962). Sec. 
3. Western Empire transferred to the Kings of Germany 
(962). Sec. 4, Cis-Juran and Trans-Juran Burgundy — 
Kings of Aries (887-1032). 

CHAPTER IV. 

Spain, the Arabians, and Greeks, .... . 175 

Section 1. Vicissitudes of the Struggle between the Arabs and] 
Christians of Spain. Sec. 2. Greek Empire— Photius and 
Michael Cerularius. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Church and Feudalism — Conversion of the Scandi- 
navians and Slavs, 184 

Section 1. Catholic Hierarchy, particularly in the Tenth Cen- 
tury—Desolations and Consolations. Sec. 2. Conversion of 
the Scandinavians. Sec. 3. Conversion of the Slavs. 



6 CONTEyTS, 

FOURTH EPOCH {1073-1270), 
CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Struggle oil the Papacy and tlie Empire (1073-1250), . 200 

Section I. Investitures -St, Gregory VII. and Henry IV— Con- 
cordat of Worms (1073-1122). Sec. 2. The Popes confronted 
with the Ilohenstaufens— Guclphs and Ghibelines— Inde- 
pendence of Italy— Tiie Long Interregnum of the Empire 
(1137-1272). 

CHAPTER 11. 

Crusades in the East, ^•^^ 

Section 1. First Crusade (1095-1099)— Power of Islamism and 
Weakness of the Eastern Empire— Godfrey of Bouillon, 
King of Jerusalem (1099)- The Knights Hospitalers and 
Templars. Sec. 2. Second Crusade (1147-1149)— Louis VII. 
and Conrad III— Third Crusade (11S9-1193)— Frederick Bar- 
barossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard Cceur de Lion— Teu- 
tonic Knights. Sec. 3. Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)— Foun- 
dation of the Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204-12G1)— 
Fifth (1217-1221) and Sixth (1228) Crusades. Sec. 4. The 
Two Crusades of St. Louis— Results of the Crusades— Chi- 
valry. 

CHAPTER in. 

The Crusades in Europe, 278 

Section 1. Crusades against the Moors of Spain. Sec. 2. Cnisade 
against the Albigenses (1203-1229). Sec. 3. Crusades against 
the Pagans of the Baltic in the Thirteenth Century. 

CHAPTER IV. 

France and England, 297 

Section 1. Progress of Royalty in France— Emancipation of 
Cities. Sec. 2. England— The Norman Kings (lOOG-1154) 
and the first four Plantagencts (1154-1272)— Ireland before 
and after the Anglo-Norman Invasion (1171)— Magna 
Charta (1215). 

CHAPTER V. 

The Scandinavians, Slavs, and Mongols, .... 330 

Section 1. The Scandinavian Kingdoms. Sec. 2. The Slavonian 
States. Sec. 3. The Mongols and the Empire of Jcnghis 
Khan. 



CONTEyTS. 



CnAPTER VI. 

The Two Great Epochs of the MediaBval Age, . 

Section 1. Meridian of the Papacy and the Church— Eeligious 
Orders— Propagation and Vindication of Christianity. Sec. 
2. Theological Sciences, National Languages, and Christian 
Art. 



PAGE 
351 



FIFTH EPOCH {1270~U5S). 
CHAPTER I. 

Great Schism of the West, 376 

Section 1. Dispute of Boniface YIII. and Philip the Fair— The 
Popes of Avignon (1305-1378). Sec. 2. The Great Schism 
(1378-1417)— Councils of Pisa (1409) and Constance (1414- 
1418)— The Ten Years' Schism (1439-1449)— Councils of 
Basle (1431-1439) and Florence (1438-144x;) 



CHAPTER n. 

France and England — Hundred Years' War, . 

Section 1. The last Capetiang and the first three Yalois (1270- 
1380)— Struggle of the three Edward Plantagenets (1273- 
1377) against France and Scotland. Sec. 2. Anarchy in 
England and France— Lancasters and Stuarts— Final Tri- 
umph of Charles YII. 



599 



CHAPTER HI. 

Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, 

Section 1. Germany— The three Imperial Families. Sec. 2. 
Liberation of Switzerland (1307-1450). Sec. 3. Italy- 
Struggle of Guelphs and Ghibelines- Republics transform- 
ed into Principalities. 

CHAPTER lY. 
Spain — The Five Kingdoms, 

CHAPTER Y. 

Scandinavia and the Slavic Countries, .... 
Section 1. The three Scandinavian Kingdoms— Margaret (13G3- 
1412) and the Union of Calmar. Sec. 2. Slavs in servitude, 
except the Poles and Hungarians. 



420 



443 



453 



PAGE 



8 Contents, 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Greek Empire and the Ottoman Turks, . . . 464 

Section 1. Conquests of the Ottoman Turks to the battle of An- 
gora, or Aucyra (1299-1402). Sec. 2. The Mongol Empire 
under Timur, or Tamerlane— The Ottoman Turks to the 
Taking of Coustantiuoplc (1402-1453). 

Review Questions, 480 



Ceronological Table, 487 

List of Roman Pontiffs, 493 

List of Monarchs, 49G 



History of the Middle Ages. 



i:N^TKODUCTIO]sr. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE, THE BARBARIANS, AND 
THE CHURCH IN 395.— THE FIVE EPOCHS 
OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

With the death of Theodosius the Great in 395 
begins the history of the Middle Ages. It is so 
called because it is a narration of the events which 
ended in the overthrow of the ancient civilized or 
Eoman world, and laid the foundation of the princi- 
pal states of modern times. Thus all agree in look- 
ing upon the Middle Ages as a period of transition, 
during which was brought about the union of three 
societies, the Roman Empire, the barbarian world, 
and the Church, that at the death of Theodosius 
stood in opposition to each other. 

The Empire. — At the end of the fourth century 
the Roman Empire extended from the Atlantic 
Ocean to the banks of the Euphrates, and from 
Caledonia, the Rhine, and the Danube as far as the 
African deserts. This vast territory was divided into 
four prefectures, which again were subdivided into 



10 History of the Middle Ages, 

fourteen dioceses and one linndred and eighteen pro- 
vinces, comprising many municipalities.* 

The emperor, who had absolute power, governed 
with the help of ministers and civil and military 
officers. Tlie principal of these officers were the 
prefect of the pretorium, the grand master of the 
horse, and the grand master of the infantry, in the 
prefecture ; the vicar, or vice-prefect, the master 
of horse, and tlie master of infantry, in the dio- 
cese ; the 2)resident, or proconsul, the duke, and the 
count, in the province ; the curiales, or members of 
the curia, in the city. 

This hierarchy, so regular and beautiful in ap- 
pearance, contained in reality the germs of ap- 
proaching dissolution. There was neither law nor 
sanctioned usage to regulate the order of succes- 
sion to the throne. It was easy for officials to 
commit exactions in an empire too extensive for 



* The following is a summary of the principal divisions of the empire 
under Honor ins: 

WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Prefecture of Italy : 

Diocese of Western TlhTia, 8 provinces. 

" Northern Italy, 7 '' 

" Rome, 10 

" Africa, 4 " 

Pr^ecture of the Gauls : 

Diocese of Brittany, 5 " 

the Gauls, 18 

Spain, 7 

Seven dioceses, E9 " 

EASTERN EMPIRE. 

Prefecture of the East : 

Diocese of Ecfvpt 6 provinces. 

" the Orient, 15 " 

" Asia Minor, "iO " 

" Pontus, 11 " 

♦' Thrace, 6 

Prefecture of Eastern. Illi/ria : 

Diocese of Dacia 5 " 

" Macedonia, 6 " 

Seven dioceses, 59 " 



InTR OB UCTION. 1 1 

one chief to superintend its administration. Tlie 
increase of taxes reduced the lower classes of the 
people to such want that the curiales, or principal 
citizens, who were held responsible to the state for 
the delinquency of the other taxpayers, renounced 
the honors of the curia to escape poverty. Patri- 
otism had disappeared, either on account of imperial 
despotism or because the title of Roman citizen had 
been degraded by its being lavishly conferred on bar- 
barians ; and then it was difficult to unite in sympa- 
thy so many provinces widely differing in language, 
manners, and interests. Finally, a horde of barba- 
rians had been brought into the empire to guard the 
frontiers, and were embodied with the legions under 
the name of ^*^ auxiliaries," or ^'federates." Thus 
the Roman Empire, Avitli its oppressive administra- 
tion, had neither citizens nor soldiers to be trusted 
for its defence. 

The Barbarian World; the Germans. — At all the 
frontiers the empire was harassed by barbarians: 
in the island of Britain by the fierce clans of 
Caledonia ; on the Euphrates by the warlike na- 
tion of the Persians ; and at the south, by the noma- 
dic tribes of the desert, among whom appeared the 
Arabs, destined later to act so important a part. 
At the end of the fourth century there was serious 
danger only at the north of the empire in the 
vast countries which extend beyond the Rhine and 
the Danu'be. The Romans divided this territory 
beyond the Rhine and the Danube into three distinct 
regions, inhabited by three great families of barba- 
rians : Germany as far as the Vistula and the Baltic 
Sea ; Sarmatia to the Rha (Volga) ; and Scythia, 
which comprised all the northeastern part of Europe 



12 History of the Middle Ages. 

and the wliole of Asia, between the Vol;;^a and the 
Bhick Sea. 

The Germans, or *'men of war," became formidable 
to the Romans after the destruction of the legions 
of Varus, and were extended from south to north 
in numerous tribes, some isolated, others united into 
confederations. The principal of these tribes were 
the Franks (Salians, Eipuarians, Sicambrians, etc.), 
Allemanni, Suevi, Bavarians, Burgundians, Frisians, 
Saxons, Angles, Vandals, Heruli, Lombards, Danes, 
Scandinavians, and finally the Goths, who extended 
their sway over nearly the whole of Sarmatia. This 
nation, long the most powerful of all Germany, was 
divided into three distinct races : tlie Ostrogoths, or 
Eastern Goths, on the left shore of the Borysthenes 
(Dnieper) ; the Visigoths, or Western Goths, on the 
right shore of the same river ; and the Gepidae, or 
lajTirards, who remained behind near the sources of 
the Vistula. 

The Germans, the future conquerors of the empire, 
were distinguished from the Eomans by their j^er- 
sonal appearance, their character, and their national 
institutions. They were robust and of lofty stature, 
with fair complexion and blue eyes ; they were clad 
in short and scant garments, some having besides a 
close-fitting linen tunic, others deer or sheep skins, 
and all wore cloth or leather trousers reaching to the 
feet. The most prominent trait in their character 
was the love of independence and warfare. To gra- 
tify their wandering propensity they took care not 
to build cities and villages, but lived in huts of wood 
or earth, which were scattered throughout the plains 
and forests. The soil was held in common ; every 
year it was divided into as many portions as there 



InTR OB UCTION. 13 

were families. These barbarians considered ifc a dis- 
grace to till the land, and left its care to their slaves. 
They loved war and the chase. The bravest were 
accompanied by a certain number of retainers, volun- 
tarily bound to conquer or to die in their service on 
condition of sharing the booty. Before setting out on 
a campaign they chose the most courageous warrior 
as supreme chief. This dignity^ wholly temporary, 
could be bestowed upon the king of the nation, as is 
evident from the usage of the Franks and Goths. 
But the sovereign authority principally resided in the 
assembly of freemen, which regulated all important 
political or judicial affairs. "We shall see later that 
the Germans, even after settling in the empire, pre- 
served their national institutions; but their gross 
idolatry soon vanished before the light of the Gospel. 
Their supreme god was Tuisco, or Teutsch, the father 
of the Germanic race, from whom the Germans derive 
the name of Teutons. They worshipped the earth 
(Hertha), the sun, the moon, and the thunder ; but 
their favorite god was Odin, who presided over war, 
gave them victory, and at night indulged his warlike 
propensity by tilting in the air with the brave who 
had been slain fighting. Such a god promised the 
living a paradise agreeable to their tastes ; this was 
Walhalla, his own residence, where heroic combats 
every day resulted in glorious wounds, which were 
healed at night and soon forgotten in the revels of a 
banquet w^iere warriors drank hydromel from the 
skulls of their enemies. It is easy to understand 
what impulse such a prospect lent the ferocious con- 
querors of the Eoman Empire. 

Slavs and Scythians ; Origin of the Great Invasions 
(376). — The Sarmatians, or Slavs, for the most 



14 History of tue Middle Ages. 

part subject to the Goths, then to the Iluns, were 
afterwards divided into Southern Slavs (Bosnians, 
Servians, Croatians, Slavonians, Dalmatians), AVestern 
Slavs (Moravians, Czechs or Bohemians, Lusatians, 
Wiltzes, Pomeranians, Poles), and Northern Slavs 
(Prussians, Lithuanians, Livonians, Esthonians, and 
Roxolani). The latter, mingled with the Fins, have 
formed in great part the Russian nation. 

The Scythian race, called also the Turanian or 
Tartar, comprised the Fins, the Alans, and the Huns, 
who were already in Europe. The Avari, the Bul- 
garians, the Magyars or Hungarians, the Mongols or 
Tartars, and the Turks were still in Asia, subject to 
the Huns. 

The arrival of the Huns in Europe, in 376, was the 
beginning of the great invasions. These barbarous 
hordes, having set out from the frontiers of China, 
and being joined by the Alans, who dwelt at the north 
of the Caucasus, struck the vast empire of the Goths, 
w^hich stretched from the Baltic to the Black Sea. 
The Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, were crushed by the 
innumerable Tartar cavalry, and Herman rich, their 
king, an old man of a hundred years, slew himself 
with his own sword rather than survive his defeat. 
Tlie Visigoths, seized with fear, evacuated the coun- 
try west of the Borysthencs and fled towards the 
Danube. Then the Huns, drawing the Ostrogoths and 
the Gepidre along with them, spread throughout the 
neighboring countries, overcoming the peaceable Sar- 
matians without difficulty, and driving ahead the 
w\arlike tribes of Germany, who, impelled from north 
to south, were dashed upon the frontiers of the Ro- 
man Empire like so many swollen and irresistible 
torrents. 



Intr OB ucTiom 15 

The Visigoths, haying reached the Danube, ob- 
tained leave to cross the river and settle in Moesia, 
a province of the Eastern Empire. The Emperor Va- 
lens, although forced to give them an asylum, stipu- 
lated that they should embrace Arianism and deliver 
up their arms. These barbarians found it less dis- 
tasteful to become heretics than to become harmless, 
for they contrived to keep their arms and soon took 
occasion to use them. To avenge the exactions of 
the imperial officers they laid waste the country with 
fire and sword. The Emperor Yalens, hoping to 
rid the empire of these dangerous guests, attacked 
them under the walls of Adrianople ; but his army 
was cut to pieces, and the hut to which he had fled 
for shelter being set on fire by the conquerors, he 
perished in. the flames (378). 

Theodosius, chosen to succeed him, avenged his de- 
feat and compelled the Visigoths to return to Moesia. 
The barbarians reluctantly submitted to live there in 
peace during the reign of the great emperor, until 
the favorable occasion came for the first invasion of 
the empire. 

The Church. — Triumphant over persecution and 
heresy, the Church overthrew the idols and took pos- 
session of the Eoman Empire. But the empire was 
about to disappear, as, in helping to spread Christian- 
ity, it had fulfilled its mission. The Church, which 
had the promise of everlasting life, was destined to 
survive the empire and to form a new world. With 
no other arms than persuasion and the power of vir- 
tue she met the shock of invasion, tamed the wild- 
ness of the barbarians, solaced the woes of the Ro- 
mans, and brought conquerors and conquered together 
under the sweet yoke of the Gospel. This work 



16 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

of reparation she accomplished by proclaiming the 
eqnality and brotherhood of all men in the sight of 
God, the sacred rights of slaves, the dignity of the 
Christian famil}^, and the duty of succoring the nn- 
fortmiate. She opened her temples as so many in- 
violable asylums, and she distributed to the poor the 
treasures which she had from the bounty of princes 
and of the faithful. Her powerful hierarchy alone 
remained unbroken and presented its diUercnt 
grades, from the humblest minister of the altar to the 
bishop, elected defender of the city to protect the 
weak, and alike devoted to the welfare of the peo- 
ple. The emperor no longer resided at Rome, where 
the successor of St. Peter was gladly obeyed and was 
generally independent. 

The Five Epochs of the Middle Ages.— The his- 
tory of the Middle Ages begins with the death of 
Theodosius the Great (395), and ends at the taking of 
Constantinople by the Turks (1453). It is divided 
into five e2')0chs : 

1. The Invasion and Conversion of tlic Bar'hariansy 
from the death of Theodosius the Great to the death 
of St. Gregory the Great (395-604). 

2. Tlie Formation of Christian Europe, from the 
death of St. Gregory the Great to the death of 
Charlemagne (G04-814). 

3. Feudal Europe, from the death of Charlemagne 
to the accession of St. Gregory VII. (814-1073). 

4. The Papacy and the Christian Republic, from 
the accession of St. Gregory VII. to the death of St. 
Louis (1073-1270). 

5. Religious and Political Anarchy, from the death 
of St. Louis to the taking of Constantinople by the 
Turks (1270-1453). 



FIRST EPOCH (395-604), 

FROM THE DEATH OF THEODOSIUS THE GREAT 
TO THE DEATH OF ST. GREGORY THE GREAT 
—209 YEARS, 

The first epoch of the mecliaeval age comprised the invasions 
and the conversion of the barbarians. After invading and 
dismembering the Western Empire the Germans occupied 
the whole territory and founded several kingdoms : the 
Franks in Gaul, the Anglo-Saxons in England, the Visi- 
goths in Spain, and finally the Heruli in Italy, afterwards 
succeeded in turn by the Ostrogoths, the Greeks, and the 
Lombards. At the death of St. Gregory all the Germanic 
tribes in the empire had embraced the true faith. 



CHAPTEE I. 

THE GEEAT INVASIONS AND THE FALL OF 
THE WESTERN EMPIEE (395-476). 

The Western Empire in the space of eighty-one years sustained 
the shock of six great invasions, three under the Emperor 
Honorius and as many under Valentinian III. The empire 
was already dismembered when the city of Rome, sacked 
by Genseric, was left to the mercy of the barbarians, who 
abolished the imperial dignity. 

Sec. 1. Honorius (395-423) ; Alaric and Radagasius. 

Division' of the Eomak Empire (395).— Theo- 
dosins tlie Great, to ensure the defence of the em- 
pire, had divided it between his two sons, Arca- 
dius, who received the Eastern Empire, and Honorius, 
the Western. The princes, being still too young to 
govern, were under the tutehage of two ministers. 



18 II I SI our OF THE Middle Ages. 

who were jealous of each other and ready to sacri- 
fice the interests of the empire to their own ambi- 
tious projects. Stilicho, a Vandal by birth, ruled 
in the name of Honorius, and Euilnus the Gaul in 
the name of Arcadius. The first had merited his 
high rank by his brilliant services, the second had 
elevated himself by intrigue. It was a time of confu- 
sion, when every case Avr.s decided by arms, and Sti- 
licho resolved to supplant his rival and alone govern 
the two empires. His aim became evident by his re- 
fusing to divide the imperial treasure and to dismiss 
the Eastern legions at Constantinople. Eufinus, 
terrified by the threatening danger, resolved to avert 
it at the expense of the empire ; he therefore secretly 
instigated the Visigoths to ravage all the country up 
to the very walls of Constantinople. His design was 
to secure the alliance of that warlike people against 
Stilicho, and to strengthen his credit with Arcadius 
by proving that he alone was able to save the East- 
ern capital. Thus was the perfidious minister about 
to offer the barbarians what they had sought for 
twenty years — a favorable opportunity to penetrate 
into the heart of the empire and devote it to 
plunder. 

Alaric Ravages the Eastern- Empire (395-396). 
— The Visigoths, having leave as auxiliaries to settle 
in [Ma^sia, had displayed their courage and fidelity 
under Theodosius the Great. But their new chief, 
Alaric, of an illustrious family, eagerly answered the 
summons of Eufinus. Aware of the weakness of the 
empire, he ravaged the fairest provinces with fire and 
sword, and boldly advanced to the very walls of Con- 
stantinople. This was the first time that the bar- 
barians had ap])eared before the gates of the capital. 



l^iiiST Lfoch, 19 

Their savage aspect, as well as the falling of their 
arrows into the city, brought consternation to its in- 
habitants. Enfinns alone, gratified in his desires, ar- 
rogantly asserted there was nothing to fear and that he 
would save the state. Invested with the insignia of a 
general, he hastened to Alaric, whom he induced to de- 
part from Constantinople on the payment of a large 
sum and full liberty to pillage the rest of Greece. 

Two hundred thousand Yisigoths, with wagons 
carrying their wives and children, fell like a devastat- 
ing scourge upon the rich j)rovinces, till then closed 
to the barbarians. At the first summons the degene- 
rate Greeks abandoned the pass of Thermopyl83 ; 
Athens was saved by payment of a ransom, Corinth 
was destroyed, and the Peloponnesus laid waste. In 
vain did Stilicho hasten with all the forces of the 
emjoire to encounter the terrible Alaric ; he was at 
once compelled to send back the Eastern legions to 
Constantinople, and they departed full of rage, vow- 
ing vengeance against the unworthy rival. At the 
very moment that Eufinus, seated beside the emperor 
at a solemn review, was hoping to obtain the title of 
Csesar, a soldier suddenly approached the haughty 
minister, and, striking him with his sword, cried out : 
^* There, take this stroke in the name of Stilicho !*' 

Stilicho found it easier to rid himself of a rival 
than to save the emj)ire. Having hemmed in Alaric 
on Mount Pholoe, he imprudently let him escape, and 
soon after learned that the Emperor Arcadius, chang- 
ing his minister without changing his policy, had 
just granted to a barbarian chief, as a reward for his 
ravages, a dignity till then reserved for the greatest 
.services. Alaric was named commander of the mili- 
tia in the Illyrian prefecture (396). 



20 History of the Middle Ages. 

First Invasion ; Alafjc i>- Italy (401-403). — 
Alaric, liaving tiiken the title of King of the Visi- 
goths, maintained that a heavenly voice summoned 
him be3'ond the Alps. The first to dare invade the 
AVestcrn Em2;)ire, he came down npon the fertile 
plains of Italy and marched against Milan, which 
Ilonorius had made his capital. Stilicho, arriving in 
great haste, was able only to rescue the emperor and 
conduct him to Ravenna, thenceforth made the im- 
perial residence, because it was considered impregna- 
ble by land and sea. To deliver Italy from the bar- 
barians, Stilicho decided to give battle on Easter day 
(402) under the walls of Pollentia (Piedmont). The 
Catholic soldiers, marching to battle armed with the 
sign of the cross, decided the victory. Alaric lost the 
flower of his army, as well as his wife, his children, 
and all his treasures. Vanquished a second time 
near Verona, he consented to return to Illyria, 
while the Emperor Ilonorius, with the astute Stili- 
cho at his side, entered Eome in triumph. In 
the midst of the games of the circus, celebrated 
in honor of the deliverance of Italy, a poor 
monk named Telemachus entered the arena, knelt 
down among the gladiators, and besought the people 
to give up so inhuman an amusement. The irritated 
spectators stoned him to death, but the blood of the 
martyr was more persuasive than his words, and 
Eome abolished the gladiatorial combats for ever. 

Secoxd Ixvasiox, called the Great Invasion 
OF 406 ; Radagasius in Italy. — Italy, barely deliv- 
ered from the Visigoths, was menaced by a still 
more formidable invasion. The German barbarians, 
fleeing before the Huns, continued to pour down 
towards the Danube and the foot of the Alps. 



First Epoch. 21 

Two liundred tliousancl descended the valley of tlie 
Adige under the command of Eadagasius, who yowed 
to immolate thousands of yictims to his divinities, 
thirsting, he said, for human blood. All Italy was 
terror-stricken ; the pagans, who were still numerous, 
clamored for the re-establishment of the ancient sac- 
rifices to appease the gods of Eome. But the Chris- 
tians confidently invoked the true God, and an appa- 
rition of St. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, gave the 
Florentines courage to prolong resistance. Stilicho, 
having assembled thirty legions, freed Florence, 
drove the barbarians to the rocks of Fiesole, and 
compelled them to lay down their arms. Eadaga- 
sius was beheaded, and his comrades sold in the mar- 
ket as common slaves. Stilicho received for the sec- 
ond time the glorious title of Liberator of Ital}^ 

The Great Ii;rvASioiq- liT Gaul (406-409).— The 
disaster of Radagasius terrified the barbarians who 
remained on the Danube. About four hundred 
thousand Vandals, Alans, Suevi, and Burgundians 
turned their backs upon Italy to cast themselves up- 
on Gaul. Having crushed the Eipuarian Franks and 
the Germans, who guarded the river, they crossed it 
on the ice during the last night of the year 406. These 
ferocious hordes sacked Mayence, Strassburg, Metz, 
Eheims, and most of the other cities of Gaul. The 
rain cf the country, says a contemporary, would not 
have been more complete had the entire ocean swept 
over the plains of Gaul. 

The Emperor Honorius, uneasy for Italy, left the 
provinces open to the barbarians. The Eoman legions 
that he had recalled from Britain protested against 
abandoning that fair province and proclaimed a sim- 
ple ofiicer named Constantine as emperor (407). The 



22 History of tub Middle Ages, 

new emperor was acknowledgetl first by the inhabi- 
tants of Gaul and afterwards by Ilonorius himself. 
He had promised to be the liberator of Gaul ; but 
the barbarians, after ravaging it for two years, depart- 
ed less through fear than from a desire to seek richer 
booty elsewhere. The Vandals, the Suevi, and the 
Ahans, crossing the Pyrenees (409), threw themselves 
upon Spain, which till then had been spared the 
evils of invasion. 

Third Invasioit ; Alaric iis'" Italy (408-410). — 
Alaric, encamped at the approaches to Italy, threat- 
ened to unite with the other barbarians in a final 
blow at the very heart of the empire. Stihcho, to de- 
ter him, promised to cede him the prefecture of Illy- 
ria. The minister, it is said, wished to gain a power- 
ful auxiliary against the barbarian invaders of Gaul ; 
but he was accused, not without grounds, of consult- 
ing his personal interests. Being the father-in-law 
of the Emperor Honorins, who had no children, he 
hoped to secure the throne for his own son, Euche- 
rius, a pagan like himself, and supported by the con- 
federates, or barbarians in the pay of the empire. 
Honorius, alarmed at these criminal projects, signed 
the death-warrant of Stilicho, who was beheaded 
on the threshold of a church in Ravenna where he 
had sought an asylum (408). Many thousands of 
confederates were involved in the same massacre, 
but those who escaped found an avenger in Alaric. 

Alaric, crossing the Alps a second time, marched 
straight upon Rome. *'God urges me on," he re- 
plied to a hermit who vainly tried to hinder him. 
The Romans, besieged and suffering from famine, 
consulted the pagan oracles ; they only hastened 
thereby the chastisement of their city, v/hicli Heaven 



Fie ST Epoch. 23 

purged from idolatry to render it worthy of be- 
coming the capital of Christendom. When the 
Eomaii deputies tried to intimidate Alaric by re- 
presenting to him the great number of the inhabi- 
tants — upwards of twelve hundred thousand — ''So 
much the better/' said he; ''the thicker the grass, 
the easier to mow it." After threatening the besieged 
to spare nothing but their lives, the haughty con- 
queror contented himself with imposing a nuisom of 
five thousand pounds of gold and thirty thousand 
pounds of silver (409). 

Honorius, shut up in Eavenna, refused to ratify 
the treaty, and Alaric appeared under the walls of 
Eome for a second time. The barbaric king amused 
himself by creating a man named Attains emperor, 
but de2:)osed him at the end of a few days as a use- 
less toy. Exasperated by the perfidy of Honorius, 
who responded to new advances by an unexpected 
attack, he besieged Eome a third time, entered it 
under cover of the night, and gave it up for six 
days to all the horrors that could be inflicted by 
his barbarous followers (410). This joroud city, so 
long mistress of the world, had not sustained such 
a disaster since Brennus the Gaul, eight centuries 
before, had reduced it to ashes. The Visigoths, by 
order of their king, destroyed all that came in 
their way. Only the inhabitants who had sought 
shelter in the churches of St. Peter and of St. 
Paul were spared. Fire was joined to pillage, and, 
as if Heaven itself desired to render the chas- 
tisement more signal, the lightning threw down 
several pagan temples and crumbled the senseless 
idols before which impious adorers wei'e prostrate. 
Amidst these ruins the true religion gloriously arose ; 



24 IIlSTOliY OF THE MiDDLE AgES. 

the precious vases belonging to the church of Sfc. 
Peter were restored by the awe-struck conquerors 
themselves. The Christians hastened from all quar- 
ters, and mingling with the barbarians, and singing 
hymns, formed a kind of military procession which 
augured the approaching triumph of tlie faith des- 
tined to unite all nations in the worship of the true 
God. 

Alaric, laden with the spoils of Rome, proceeded 
towards the south of Italy, designing, it is said, to 
conquer Sicily and Africa. But death overtook him 
at Cosenza. The Visigoths, Avishing to bury him 
with divers precious articles in the bed of the river, 
employed the prisoners to turn aside its course during 
the night, after which they strangled them to a man 
to ensure secrecy, and to protect from profanation 
the tomb where they laid the conqueror of Eome 
(410). 

The Visigoths ik Gaul aj^d Spai:n' (412-419). — 
Ataulf, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric, at 
first resolved to found a Gothic empire on the ruins 
of that of Eome. But he soon gave up the plan to 
enter the service of the Emperor Ilonorius, who com- 
missioned him to bring back Gaul and Spain into 
subjection. The usuri^er Constantine, besieged in 
Aries and taken prisoner by Constantius the general 
(411), had many imitators who were not more fortu- 
nate; Ataulf overthrew them, and was finally enabled 
to come to Narbonne, and there solemnly esjiouse 
the virtuous Placidia, the sister of Ilonorius, who 
had become his captive at the sack of Eome. As a 
wedding present the barbarian chief offered her the 
most costly of the booty brought from Italy. The 
nuptial ceremonies afforded another memorable in- 



First Epoch. 25 

stance of the yicissitudes of fortune : Attains, the 
mock emperor of Alaric's whim, was appointed to 
direct the choir that sang hymns in honor of the 
royal pair. 

Ataulf, having pacified Gaul, began his operations 
in Spain, but was assassinated at Barcelona (415). 
Walliu, his successor, carried on his projects against 
tlie barbarians ; he utterly exterminated the Alans, 
drove back the Suevi into Galicia and the Vandals 
into Baetica, which was called by their name, Anda- 
lusia (Vandalitia). 

In return for his services Wallia obtained from. 
Honorius the south of Gaul as far as the Garonne, 
which he joined to his conquests in Spain to form 
the kingdom of the Visigoths, of Avhicli Toulouse 
became the capital (419). At the same epoch the 
Emperor of the West consented to acknowledge the 
kingdom of the Suevi in Gahcia. Six years before 
(413) he had ceded to Gundicarius, King of the Bur- 
gundians, the valleys of the Saone and the Ehone, 
wdiere was then founded the kingdom of tlie Burgun- 
dians. In the year 409 he had officially renounced 
the island of Britain and acknowledged the inde- 
pendence of the Armorican cities between the Seine 
and the Loire ; so that at the death of the weak 
Honorius (423) the empire of the West was already 
dismembered and comprised but a part of Gaul with 
Africa and Italy. 

Sec. 2. Valentinian III. (424-455); Genseric and 
Attila ; Fourth Invasion ; the Vandals in Africa 
(429). 

Valentinian III., nephew and successor of Hono- 
rius, was born of the last marriage of Placidia with 



26 History of the Middle Ages. 

the general and patriciiin, Constantius. As lie was 
yet a minor his mother held the reins of government. 
This princess, whose wisdom equalled her virtue, had 
given her confidence to two generals well qualified to 
save the empire had they but agreed. But Actius, 
master-general of the horse, entertained a secret 
jealousy of Boniface, the governor of Africa. To 
rid himself of his rival he accused him of rebel- 
lion against Placidia, who recalled him to the court, 
and at the same time he secretly sent him word that 
if he left Afiica to justify himself his death would 
be certain. Boniface, too honorable to suspect such 
perfidy, nevertheless committed the fault of defending 
his innocence by the very crime of which he was 
accused : he unfurled the standard of revolt and 
summoned the Yandals into Africa. 

The kino^ of these barbarians at that time was the 
ambitious and cruel Genseric (428-477), who hastened 
to cross the strait of Gades (Gibraltar). Scarcely 
had the Yandals landed in Africa than they spread 
fire and slaughter throughout Mauritania (429). 
''The whole district," says a contemporary, ''was 
depopulated and ravaged ; they uprooted vines and 
cut down trees, so that the inhabitants, who had 
sheltered themselves in the caves and inaccessible 
mountains, might not be able to find sustenance on 
their return. They wreaked unheard-of refinements 
of cruelty on their prisoners to force them to give 
up their treasures. The feebleness of age and of sex, 
rank, nobility, the sanctity of the priesthood, failed 
to assuage their fury. When they came to a forti- 
fied place which their undiscii)lined troops could not 
reduce, they would assemble a great number oi 
prisoners and put them to the sword, so that the 



First Epocb. 27 

stench of their corpses, which tliey left nnburied, 
might force the garrison to abandon the place." 

Count Boniface, who had detected the treachery of 
Aedus, in vain performed prodigies of valor to check 
these ferocious invaders ; he was vanquished, and 
obliged to shut himself up in Hippo, which surren- 
dered after a siege of fourteen months (431), made 
illustrious by the devotedness and death of the bishop, 
St. Augustine. Genseric, the declared enemy of Ca- 
tholicity, being reinforced by the heretics, extended 
his ravages throughout Eoman Africa, so famous for 
its fertility that it was called the granary of Eome and 
of the human race. The opulence of the inhabitants 
was equalled only by their wickedness ; so that the 
calamities that befell them were looked upon as the 
effect of divine vengeance. It is affirmed that the 
Vandals destroyed five millions of people, and turned 
Africa into a desert where a traveller might journey 
several days without meeting a living soul. 

Finally, Genseric seized Carthage and made it his 
capital (439). His maritime power soon became as 
formidable as that of the ancient Carthao^inians : he 
took possession of the Balearic isles, Corsica, Sar- 
dinia, and a part of Sicily ; he devastated the Italian 
coasts, and menaced even Constantinople. One day 
his pilot, on leaving the port of Carthage, asked 
wdiither he should sail. " Towards those whom God 
desires to chastise," replied Genseric; "turn thy prow 
to the wind — all coasts are ours.'' 

Fifth Invasion; Attila ijt Gaul (450-451). — 
Though Count Boniface had obtained Placidia's par- 
don, he was unable to appease the hatred of his rival, 
Aetius, who sought the aid of the Huns against him. 
This time, however, victory declared itself for the 



28 HiSTOR Y OF THE Middle A ges. 

right; but Boniface perished in consequence of a 
wound received in the battle. AGLius, restored to 
favor, thought only of wiping out his faults by the 
splendor of his exploits against the barbarians. Vic- 
torious over the Burgundians and Visigoths, he 
turned his arms against the Franks of Clodion, 
drove them towards the Scheldt (447), and restored 
the imperial authority throughout nearly the whole 
of Gaul. Genseric, perceiving himself menaced in 
Africa, thought to evoke the storm by drawing the 
most terrible of scourges upon the empire. 

The Iluns had been ravaging Euroj^e for more 
than half a century when Attila, having become 
their sole king (433-453), extended his conquests 
from the Baltic Sea to the frontiers of China. This 
barbarian seemed born to affright the world and to 
bear the thunderbolts of divine wrath to the ends of 
the earth; he styled himself the Scourge of God. 
'' The grass grows not," said he, '' where my steed 
has passed." His appearance was the index of his 
ferocity : his head was enormously large, his eyes 
small and sparkling, his nose flat, his complexion 
swarthy, his step haughty and threatening. Such 
was this chief, worthy to command warriors who car- 
ried their enemies' heads at the pommels of their 
saddles. 

At the instigation of Genseric, Attila at first in- 
vaded the Eastern Empire, and destroyed more than 
sixty important cities. The weak emperor Theodo- 
sius 11. consented to pay liim tribute ; but his suc- 
cessor, Marcian, upon being summoned to follow his 
example, made this haughty reply : '^I have gold for 
my friends, but steel for my enemies." Whether the 
king of the Iluns was intimidated, or hoped for 



First Epoch, 29 

richer booty in tlio West, or was called thither by 
Honoria, the sister of Valentiniaii III., ho turned his 
back to the East and set out towards Gaul. Fol- 
lowed by 500,000 warriors, this ferocious conqueror 
crossed the Ehine, sacked Metz, Eheims, and the 
other cities on his way ; but he spared Troyes in 
consideration of its bishop, St. Lupus ; and to the 
prayers of an humble virgin, St. Genevieve, Paris 
owed its escape from his fury. He was about to 
give up the city of Orleans to pillage when St. 
Aignan, its bishop, who Avatched and prayed for his 
people, announced the arrival of the Koman generah 
Aetius hastened at the head of his legions, which 
were reinforced by the Franks, Visigoths, and a mul- 
titude of other barbarian warriors. Attila, for the 
first time forced to withdraw, halted on the vast plain 
of Chalons-sur-Marne. There took place a terrible 
conflict between the two largest armies Europe had 
ever beheld in battle array. The Visigoths lost their 
king, Theodoric, but they shared with the Franks the 
glory of deciding the victory over the savage invaders. 
Attila, foaming with rage, entered his camp and en- 
trenched himself behind his wagons. He raised an 
immense funeral pyre of horse-trappings, intending 
to perish in the flames in case of defeat. Aetius, 
however, deemed it prudent not to drive so formid- 
able an enemy to despair, and allowed him to recross 
the Rhine (451). 

Sixth lis^vASioi^ ; Attila in Italy (452). — Attila 
burned to revenge his defeat on Italy ; he ravaged 
the southern part of it from Aquileia, which he re- 
duced to ashes, to Milan, which he set up for ransom. 
On his approach, the terror-stricken inhabitants of 
Venetia sought refuge in the islands of the Adriatic, 



30 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

•\vlicro they founded the city of Venice, destined 
to become the Queen of the Adriatic. The em- 
peror, Valentinian III., thinking himself no longer 
secure in Ravenna, fled to Rome. As he could not 
rely on Aetius, whose fidelity was distrusted, and as 
the army was insufficient, he sent to the barbarian 
king an embassy headed by Pope St. Leo the Great. 
The imposing aspect of the sovereign pontiff, who 
seemed armed with irresistible power, intimidated 
the conqueror; he agreed, upon being paid a conside- 
rable sum, to go out of Italy, but threatened to re- 
turn the following year unless half the empire was 
ceded to him with the hand of Ilonoria, whose ring 
he had received as a marriage pledge. 

Attila did not return ; he fell in a drunken fit in 
an entrenched camp, which served him as a capital 
on the banks of the Theiss (453). The Huns gave 
him worthy obsequies. *^ They cut off their hair," 
says an historian of the time, *^and furrowed their 
hideous faces with deep gashes, because to mourn 
such a warrior the blood of men, not the lamenta- 
tions of women, Avas meet." They laid out the body 
of Attila under a silken tent in the open plain. It 
was an imposing and solemn spectacle. The most 
skilful horsemen galloped around it as if in the circus. 
At the same time they vaunted the exploits of the 
King of the Iluns in a funeral chant : " Attila, son of 
Munzuck, chief of the most valiant nations gathered 
under his sway, the mighty people of Scythia and 
Germany ; he struck terror into the empires of the 
East and of the West by taking many cities ; the 
others lie spared only for entreaties and the payment 
of an annual tribute." His body was enclosed in a 
triple coffin of gold, silver, and iron, and was buried 



First Epoch, 31 

at night with the richest spoils of conquered nations ; 
this done, the slaves who had dug the trench were 
killed, and the orgies of a banquet concluded the 
funeral ceremonies. With Attila disappeared the vast 
empire which he had founded. The Huns, weakened 
by civil war, dispersed. The races tliey had subju- 
gated, whether Slavs or Germans, recovered their 
independence and formed distinct states, the most 
powerful of which were the kingdom of the Gepidge, 
on the left bank of the Theiss, and that of the Ostro- 
goths in Pannonia. 

The Emperor Valentinian III.., having nothing 
further to fear from the Huns, was eager to rid him- 
self of the only general who could boast of having 
vanquished them. Either through jealousy or a de- 
sire of preventing a conspiracy, he summoned Aetius 
to his palace and murdered him with his own hand 
(454). Some months later he was himself assassinated 
by order of the senator Petronius Maximus, whom he 
had insulted. AYith him ended the family of Theo- 
dosius the Great, and thenceforth in the West the im- 
perial dignity lost the prestige it had enjoyed among 
the barbarians during the great invasions. 

Sec. 3. — The Last Emperors and the Confederates. 

Sackij^Ct op Rome by Geksekic (455). — The 
murderer of Valentinian HI., not content with 
usurping his crown, married his widow, Eudoxia, 
by force. The latter called upon the king of the 
Vandals to help her break the bonds of a marriage 
that she abhorred. Genscric eagerly seized the oppor- 
tunity of securing rich booty. At his approach, Maxi- 
mus, as cowardly as he was cruel, attempted to flee 



32 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

from Rome, but the indignant ])cople stoned liim to 
death. Vo\)q St. Leo, who had succeeded in disarm- 
ing Attila, vainly endeayorcd to stay Genseric at the 
gates of Home ; the barbarian Avould promise notliing 
except to spare the city from fire and sword, but he 
maintained the right of delivering it up to pillage. 
For fourteen days and nights the Vandals continued 
to despoil Rome Avith that destructive rage which 
has made their name so infamous. They spared no- 
thing that the Visigoths had respected ; they loaded 
ships with gold, silver, and masterpieces of art, 
sacred vessels taken from churches, and even the 
bronze that covered the Capitol. They carried aw\ay 
60,000 captives, among whom were Eudoxia and her 
children. Carthage, on beholding the fleet sail into 
her harbor laden with the spoils of Rome, might well 
think herself avenged on a rival that had formerly 
condemned her to utter destruction. 

RiciMER AND Odoacer. — Rome, humbled and de- 
populated by the Vandals, became the sport and prey 
of the barbarians, who disputed the privilege of ap- 
pointing its emperors. The charge fell to those who, 
under the denomination of confederates, were then 
cantoned in Italy. Ricimer, of the Suevi, their com- 
mander, for upwards of sixteen years disposed at 
pleasure of the imperial purple. Thrice it v/as left 
to his option to assume it, but he preferred to see it 
upon his creatures, whom he could as easily cast 
down as exalt. In twenty j^ears eight emperors either 
perished or were deposed.'^ Several of them, espe- 
cially Majorian and Anthemius, ^vere men of moral 

* The eight emperors were : Avitus, 455-150, successor of Petron'us 
Maximus ; Majorian, 45(j-46l ; Severus, 461-4G7 ; Anthemius, 4GT-472 ; 
Olybrius, 472; Glycerins, 473-i74 ; Julius Nepos, 474-475; Eomulus 
Augustulus, 47ti. 



First Epoch. 33 

qiialiiies and military talents. But they committed 
v/hat was in the eyes of Ricimer the unpardonable 
fault of wishing to be real monarchs. 

At the death of Ricimer (472) a former secretary 
of Attila, named Orestes, also made use of the con- 
federates to dispose of the purple. Having refused 
the title of emperor for himself, he gave it to his own 
son, then a child, who, by a strange coupling of the 
names of the founder of Rome and of the empire, 
was called Romulus Angustulus. He was the last 
and the weakest of the Western emperors. The 
confederates, being masters of Italy, established 
themselves there as the barbarians had done in the 
other provinces of the empire. Most conspicuous 
amongst their chiefs was a certain Odoacer, by birth 
of the Heruli, who relied on his courage and cunning 
to verify a singular prophecy. One day, as he was 
going to Italy as a simple soldier, he went out of his 
way to pay a visit to St. Severinus, the celebrated 
apostle of N'oricum. Being tall, he had to stoop in 
order to enter the humble cell of the hermit, who ad- 
vised him to pursue his journey, and said, ^^Thou 
art great, but thou shalt be still greater." Odoacer, 
who had never forgotten this saying of the holy pro- 
phet, seized the opportunity of rising to a loftier sta- 
tion by demanding, in the name of the confederates, 
the third part of the lands of Italy. A refusal served 
as a pretext to attack the patrician Orestes, who was 
seized and slain in Pavia (476). Romulus Angust- 
ulus was required to abdicate, with the assent of the 
Roman senate. Reduced to a private station, he 
deemed himself fortunate in receiving an annuity 
and leave to end his days in peace in an elegant villa 
of Campania. 



34 History of the Middle Ages. 

Odoacer, proclaimed king, sent a solemn embassy 
to Zeno, Emi:)eror of the East, with instructions to 
surrender to him the insignia of the imperial dignity 
and to acknowledge his supremacy. Zeno, flattered 
to learn that according to the judgment of the 
Roman senators there was now but one empire, of 
which he was the sole master, thought it politic to 
let Odoacer retain the title of king with the govern- 
ment of Italy. Thus ended the Empire of the West 
(476). It had lasted 507 years from the battle of 
Actium and 1,229 years from the foundation of Rome. 
As it had already lost all the provinces beyond Italy, 
its extinction was scarcely remarked. It was like the 
death of an old man who, gradually losing his 
strength and the use of his limbs, retains but a 
spark of life till he almost imperceptibly breathes 
his last. 



CHAPTER 11. 



GAUL.— PREPONDERANCE OF THE MEROVIN- 
GIAN FRANKS. 

Of all the states formed by the barbarians on the ruins of the 
Roman Empire none equalled in power that of the Merovin- 
gian Franks, founded by Clovis, and extended by his sons 
and grandsons till the death of Dagobert I. 

Sec. 1. Origin of the Franks.— CTot-/*- /. (431-511). 

The Franks before Clovis. — The name of 
Franks, which appears for the first time in history in 
the middle of the third century, was applied to a 
confederation of German tribes between the Rhine 



First Epoch. 35 

and the Weser. The Franks— that is, free or daring 
men — soon rendered themselves formidable to the 
Romans by their frequent incursions into the terri- 
tory of Gaul. Always vanquished, and yet always 
ready to renew their attacks, they were the first of 
the barbarians who obtained permission to settle in 
the empire. The most powerful of their tribes, the 
Salians, originally from the source of the Sala (Yssel), 
occupied Toxandria (Brabant) on the banks of the 
Meuse (358). Other Franks, known as the Ripuari- 
ans, were commissioned to defend the banks of the 
Rhine against the barbarians of Germany. Crushed 
by the great invasion of 406, they soon gave up the 
part of auxiliaries of the empire, and seized the op- 
portunity to take possession of the northern part of 
Gaul. 

In 428 the king of the Franks was Clodion, who, 
several historians assert, was the son of Pharamond, 
and who at least belonged to a family sufficiently 
illustrious to furnish kings to the tribe of the Salians. 
Clodion seized Tournai and penetrated as far as the 
environs of Sens (448) ; but he was surprised and 
vanquished there by Aetius. His successor, Merovasus, 
appears to have lived in alliance with the Romans, 
since he assisted them against the terrible Attila 
(451). He left his petty kingdom to his son Ohil- 
deric, who is known less by the events of his reign 
than by the honor of being the father of Clovis. 

Clovis (481-511) ; Foundatio]^" of the Mok- 
AKCHY OF THE Fra^stks. — Clovis, proclaimed king 
at the age of sixteen, soon formed tlie project of 
conquering Gaul, which was divided among several 
hostile tribes. The Franks occupied all the north 
of the country, from the Somme to the Rhine ; at 



36 History of the Middle Ages. 

the east the Germans, or Allemanni, dwelt between 
the Rhine and the Vosges ; the Burgundians between 
tlie Saone, the Rhone, and the Alps ; the Visigoths 
had conquered all the south of Gaul as far as the 
Loire ; to the west were the Bretons, recently arrived 
from the island of Britain, the confederation of the 
Armorican cities, and a colony of Saxons settled at 
Bayeux ; finally, in the countries situated between 
the Loire and tlie Somme, Syagrius ruled over those 
Gallo-Romans who still survived the fall of the 
Western Empire. 

Clovis, setting out from Tournai, marched speedily 
against Syagrius, whom he defeated near Soissons 
(486). This victory enabled him to take possession 
of nearly all the country as far as the Loire. His 
marriage (493) with Clotilda, a Catholic princess, 
brought him the possession of several cities which 
he had not been able to obtain by force of arms. 
Nothing was wanting to the youthful conqueror but 
the light of the Gospel to gui(]e him. God granted 
him this grace in the heat of a desperate battle which 
he was waging with the Allemanni on the plain of 
Tolbiac (49G). Clovis, seeing his troops give way 
before the enemy, promised that if he -vvas victorious 
he would adore no other god than the God of Clo- 
tilda. His victory was so complete that he was able 
to pursue the enemy beyond the Rhine, and impose 
tribute on the Allemanni and Bavarians. 

Clovis, true to his promise, had himself and his 
best warriors instructed in the Catholic veligion, and 
he was solemnly baptized by St. Remi, Bishop of 
Rheims (496). He was then the sole Catholic prince 
in the world ; the Franks were the first of the bar- 
barians to renounce their idols and embrace the 



Fie ST Epoch. 37 

true faith. Clovis, congratulated by the Sovereign 
Pontiff and the bishops of Ganl, beheld the Bretons 
and the Armorican cities joyfully submit to his sway. 
He had, however, to employ force of arms against the 
Burgundians and the Visigoths, who were Arians and 
jealous of the Franks. The Burgundian king was 
Gundobald, who had murdered his brothers, one of 
whom was Clotilda's father. Clovis avenged his con- 
sort by defeating Gundobald near Dijon and impos- 
ing on him an annual tribute (500). The Visigoths 
sustained a defeat still more complete at Vouille, or 
Voglode ; they lost their king, Alaric, the flower of 
their warriors, and all Aquitania (507). They had 
lost all their possessions in Gaul except the sea-coast 
between the Ehone and the Pyrenees, thenceforth 
called Gothland, or Septimanca. Theodoric, King of 
the Ostrogoths, under pretext of aiding the Visigoths, 
obtained of them the title of king, and drove the 
Franks from Provence, which he added to his states. 
Clovis, on his return from his brilliant expedition, 
received from Anastasius, Emperor of the East, the 
title and insignia of patrician and consul, which se- 
cured to him, in the eyes of his new subjects, the legal 
possession of all his conquests. His zeal for religion 
contributed to enforce his authority, and he had be- 
come the mightiest monarch in Europe wdien he died 
at Paris, his capital (511). 

Sec. 2. Wars and Conquests of the Successors of 
Clovis till the Death of Dagobert I. (511-638). 

The Four Soxs of Clovis. — The inheritance of 
Clovis was apportioned among his four sons : Thierry 
resided at Metz, Clodomir at Orleans, Childebert at 
Paris, and Clotaire I. at Soissons. Their mother. 



38 IIlSTOE Y OF THE MiDDLE A GES. 

Clotildci, induced the tlirce latter to unite their arms 
against the King of the Burgundians, Sigismund, 
eldest son and successor of Gundobald. Sigismund 
-was made prisoner and drowned in a well by order of 
Clodomir, who soon expiated this act of cruelty. 
After gaining a victory near Veseronce (524) he fell 
into the hands of the Burgundians, who put him to 
death. He left three minor children, two of whom 
were murdered by their nncles Childebert and Clo- 
taire, while the youngest escaped and was later cele- 
brated for his virtues under the name of St. Cloud. 

Gondemar, the brother and successor of Sigismund, 
withstood for ten years the attacks of the Franks, but 
at last succumbed, and the kingdom of the Burgun- 
dians lost its independence (534). Thierry, King of 
Austrasia, had already conquered Thuringia (530). 
Theodebert (534-548), his son and successor, was the 
most active and enterprising of the Merovingians after 
Clovis. Having obtained Provence in return for the 
aid that he had promised to the Greeks and Ostro- 
goths, he defeated them in turn in Italy and devas- 
tated the whole country (530). Exasperated against 
the Emperor Justinian, who had had the vanity to 
assume the title of Franciscus, ho himself took that 
of Augustus, and had determined to carry the war to 
the A'ery walls of Constantinople when he died by an 
accident. Under his son Theodcbald, the Austrasian 
Franks made a second expedition into Italy; but 
nearly all perished either by the plague or the sword 
of the Greeks. 

On the other hand, Childebert and Clotairc, in 
compliance with the request of their sister Clotilda, 
who Avas ill-treated by her husband, Amalric, King of 
the Visigoths, had undertaken an expedition into 



First Epoch. 39 

Spain, whence they returned with rich booty. Thus, 
after some years, the Franks were not only masters 
of Gaul, but extended their conquests or their in- 
fluence beyond the Ehiue, the Alps, and the Pyre- 
nees. Clotaire I., having become sole king (558- 
561), enjoyed his formidable power but three years. 

SOKS AND GEAKDSOiirS OF ClOTAIRE I. ; KlVALRY 

OF Neustria akd Austrasia (568-613). — At the 
death of Clotaire I. the monarchy was again divided 
among his four sons: Caribert, King of Paris; Gon- 
tran, of Orleans and Burgundy ; Chilperic, of Sois- 
sons; and Sigebert, of Metz. Instead of enlarging 
their territory by conquests, the sons of Clotaire 
thought only of turning their arms against one 
another and of repelling the incursions of the Lom- 
bards, the new masters of Italy, and of the Avari, 
who had settled on the Danube. 

After the death of Caribert civil war broke out in 
consequence of the assassination of Galsuinde, the wife 
of Chilperic. Brunehaut, sister of the victim, roused 
the vengeance of her consort Sigebert. The cruel 
Fredegunda, who had reaped the fruit of her crime by 
ascending the throne, induced Chilperic to make a 
sudden invasion into Austrasia. Sigebert, not con- 
tent with repelling it, in turn invaded his brother's 
kingdom of JSTeustria. He was already master of 
Paris and acknowledged King of Neustria, when two 
villains, instigated by Fredegunda, pierced his heart 
with poisoned daggers (575). 

Sigebert left as heir a son, yet a minor, who was 
proclaimed King of Austrasia under the name of 
Childebert II. His uncle Gontran took him under 
his protection, and strengthened this alliance by the 
treaty of Andelot (587), which secured to the lords 



40 * History of the Middle Ages. 

the life possession of their benefices. But Fredegunda 
having added to several other murders that of her 
husband, caused lier son to be proclaimed king 
of Neustria under the name of CJotaire II. (584), 
and made preparations for war against Brunehaut. 
The implacable hatred of these two women only 
awaited tiie death of the pacific Gontran to engage 
anew in deadly conflict (503). Fredegunda first de- 
feated Childebert near Droissy, then his two sons, 
Theodebert and Thierry, at Latofao, and at last died 
in the midst of success (507). Brunehaut, freed 
from her rival, once more attacked Neustria, and was 
about to crush Clotaire 11. , when the defection of 
one of her grandsons and the death of the other left 
her defenceless against Clotaire, who held her ac- 
countable for all the horrors of the civil war, and 
caused her to be dragged to death at the tail of a 
wild horse (613). 

Clotaire II. and Dagobert I. (613-638).— Clo- 
taire II., already King of Neustria, became sole 
master of all the empire of the Franks (613). His 
triumph seemed to be that of Neustria over Austrasia, 
of royalty over the aristocracy of the prelates and 
lords ; but the prince weakened the royal authority 
by a famous constUutio7i, published at Paris (615), 
which left to the Austrasian lords the election of the 
mayors of the jKilace aud to the clergy the choice of 
the prelates. 

Dagobert I. (628-638), the eldest son and successor 
of Clotaire, made his reign illustrious by his wisdom 
and magnificence, and by the influence he exerted 
throughout the West. He surpassed all his prede- 
cessors in the splendor of his court, which he had 
fixed at Paris. Surrounded by richly-apparelled offi- 



First Epoch, 41 

cers, tliG mo?iarcli sat upon a throne of massive gold, 
made by St. Eloi, the most skilful goldsmith of his 
time. A multitude of ambassadors, among whom 
were those of the Emperor of the East, came to solicit 
the alliance and fiiendship of a sovereign who had 
no equal in Europe. His sway extended from the 
Pyrenees to the Weser, and from the ocean to the 
frontiers of Bohemia. On the death of his brother, 
Caribert, he annexed Aquitania to his states. He 
had for tributaries the Bavariaus, Allemani, Frisians, 
Thuringians, and the Saxons ; he gave orders to the 
Lombards in Italy, and he set a king over the Visi- 
goths in Spain. His generals subdued the Vascons, 
the descendants of the Iberians, who had invaded 
that part of Aquitania called by their name, Gascony. 
Finally the Britons themselves consented to pay hom- 
age in the person of their king, Judicael. This holy 
man, thinking more of virtue than of poAver, preferred, 
when at court, to dine at the table of the Chancellor 
St. Ouen, who was the friend of St. Eloi. Dagobert, 
before his death, was obliged to name his eldest son 
king of Austrasia, and he lived long enough to see 
decline set in upon the Merovingian monarchy, soon 
represented by the '^sluggard" {fainemit) kings un- 
der the tutelage of the mayors of the palace. 



CHAPTEE III. 

GREAT BRITAIN. —THE AITGLO-SAXOIfS. 

The Island of Britain" before the Invasion. 
— The island of Britain, at first called Albion, from 
the lofty chalk cliffs of its shores, received its name 



42 History of the Middle Ages. 

from the Britons, a Celtic people from Gaul. It was 
visited by Julius Caesar. lu the following century 
the Romans conquered all but the northern part, 
called Caledonia. Two Caledonian tribes, the Picts 
(painted) and the Scots, not content with resisting 
the attacks of the Romans, disturbed them in their 
conquests by frequent incursions. To keep these 
barbarians in their own country, three great walls 
were built at different times, extending across the 
Y/hole width of the island. The Britons became so 
accustomed to depend upon the Roman legions in 
their wars with the nortliern barbarians, that when 
the Emperor Honorius left them to their own re- 
sources (407), they made a pathetic appeal to Rome, 
which, nnder the name of the " Groans of the Bri- 
tons," has been preserved to us. '^ We know not," 
said they, "whither to turn ; the barbarians drive us 
to the sea, and the sea drives us back to the barba- 
rians. Our only alternative is either to be swallowed 
up in the billows or to perish by the sword." 

The emperor, menaced in Italy, turned a deaf ear 
to the complaints of so remote a province. The 
Britons in vain strove to repel their formidable ene- 
mies. Vortigern, their head chief, called in the assis- 
tance of German pirates (449). 

Invasion^ of the Saxoxs axd Angles ; the 
Heptarchy (449-584). — 1,500 of these pirates, led by 
two brothers, Hengist and Horsa, landed on the isle 
of Thane t. They came from the banks of the Elbe 
and belonged to the confederation of Saxons (long- 
knived men). Vortigern promised to cede the 
island where they had landed if they succeeded in 
repelling the Picts and Scots (449). The pirates, 
reinforced by a great number of their countrymen, 



First Epoch. 43 

easily defeated tlie Caledonians ; but they yielded to 
the very natural temptation of occupying not only 
the isle of Thanet, but also the neighboring coast of 
Kent. Having thenceforth become the enemies of 
the Britons and the allies of the Picts, they remained 
masters of the country between the lower Thames 
and the English Channel. Hengist founded the 
kingdom of Kent, of which Canterbury became the 
capital (455). 

This success attracted other Saxons, who overcame 
the resistance of the natives and eventually founded 
the three kingdoms of Sussex, or South Saxony (capi- 
tal, Chichester, 491), "VYessex, or West Saxony (capi- 
tal, Winchester, 516), and Essex, or East Saxony 
(capital, London, 526). 

The Angles, who dwelt in the centre of the Cim- 
brian peninsula, followed the example of the Saxons. 
Led on by the terrible Idda, surnamed the Fifebrand, 
they landed on the eastern coast. After a deadly 
struggle with the Britons they founded the three 
kingdoms of Northumberland (capital, York, 547), 
East Anglia (capital, Norwich, 571), and Mercia, 
that is, the marches or military frontiers (capital, 
Lincoln, 584). 

The seven kingdoms founded by the two nations, 
and therefore denominated the Anglo-Saxon Hep- 
tarchy, were at first independent of each other. 
They afterwards formed a confederation under a 
supreme chief {Bretiualda), who presided over a 
general assembly or ¥/ittenagemct (council of the 
wise). Yet the Heptarchy was weakened by intes- 
tine dissensions and an unceasing conflict with the 
Britons. 

The Britons had opposed an energetic resistance 



44 History of the Middle Ages, 

to the invaders. More than once their standard of 
the red dragon had preyailed over the Saxons' wliite 
dragon. They were animated by an implacable 
hatred of the conquerors who, after having laid 
waste their native soil, appropriated it to them- 
selves. No province of the empire suffered so much 
from the invasion of the barbarians. Some of the 
ancient inhabitants were reduced to slavery; others 
were compelled to seek safety in Armorica, called 
after them (Bretagnc) Brittany; the greater number 
retreated to the western mountains of their island 
and there founded three states— Cumberland, Corn- 
wall, and "Wales. The kingdoms of Cumberland and 
Cornwall soon lost their independence (607 and 750), 
but the w^arlike inhabitants of Wales prolonged their 
resistance until the reign of Edward I. (1283). 

CoxvEKSiOK OF THE Axglo-Saxons (597). — The 
island of Britain w^as converted to the Catholic faith 
in the second century. St. Alban, the first martyr of 
Britain, died for the faith during the persecution of 
Diocletian (303). Eeligion was beginning to flourish 
when it disappeared, with civiliz'ation, under the 
blows of the barbarians. The Anglo-Saxons were 
pagans, addicted to the sanguinary worship of Odin. 
They butchered priests and bishops, razed sacred edi- 
fices, and thus plunged the country again into the 
darkness of heathenism. God inflamed the heart of 
an apostle with the desire of repairing so great an 
evil. One day as the deacon Gregory was walking in 
the streets of Rome he remarked the beauty of some 
youthful slaves set up for sale, and asked their name 
and nation. On being told that they were English 
or Angles (Latin AngJi), he exclaimed, *' They are 
angels rather than Angles '' {Angll quasi angeli). 



First Epoch. 45 

and he resolved to become a missionary to Great 
Britain. But, hindered in his design by the Uomans, 
who elected him pope, St. Gregory the Great sent 
forty missionaries to the land of the Angles, thence- 
forth called England (Angleland). The monk Au- 
gustine, or Austin^ and his fellow-laborers landed 
on the isle of Tlianet, as the fierce conquerors of the 
country had formerly done. Though their mission 
was wholly pacific, it alarmed Etlielbert, the King of 
Kent and the supreme chief of the Heptarchy. But 
he heeded the counsels of his pious wife. Bertha, a 
daughter of Oaribert, King of Paris. As he feared 
some magic spell if he remained under the same roof 
with the strangers, he received them at first under 
an oak-tree in the open country. St. Augustine 
easily dispelled his groundless fears, and obtained 
leave to proceed to Canterbury. Thither he repaired 
in a procession with the other missionaries, preceded 
by a cross and singing psalms. The effect of his 
preaching was that the king and ten thousand of the 
Saxons received baptism. St. Augustine was named 
Archbishop of Canterbury, and commissioned by 
the Sovereign Pontiff to re-establish the Catholic 
hierarchy and to evangelize the whole country. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SPAIN.— THE VISIGOTHS. 

The Power of the Visigoths in Gaul akd 
Spaij^ (419-507).— The kingdom of the Visigoths, 
founded by Wallia (419), comprised Spain and the 
south of Gaul as far as the Garonne. In the fifth 



46 History of the Middle Ages. 

century it was the most powerful of all the states 
formed by the barbarians out of the ruins of the Ro- 
man Empire. Theodoric L, the successor of AVallia, 
fell gloriously fighting at the battle of Chalons-sur- 
Marne (451). Three of his sons who succeeded him 
in turn on the throne, Thorismond, Theodoric 11. , 
and Euric, completed the subjugation of Spain, and 
extended their possessions in Gaul to the Loire and 
the Alps. They embellished their court with a re- 
finement and a luxury nnknown to the other bar- 
barians. We can judge of the influence they exerted 
by the account of St. Apollinaris Sidonius, who 
visited King Euric at Toulouse. " The whole world," 
says he, "appeals to you and awaits your decision. 
Here is seen the blue-eyed Saxon, bold in war, ill at 
ease when ashore ; here tlie veteran Sicambrian, 
shorn after defeat, cultivates his locks anew. Here 
struts one of the Heruli of almost sea-green hue; 
there the giant Burgundian bends his knee and sues 
for peace. Here the Ostrogoth seeks the patronage 
wherein lies his strength ; and thou, too, Roman ! 
art not too proud to beg for thy life, and when the 
North tlireatens to fall upon thee, thou askest the 
arm of Euric to shield thee against the hordes of 
Scythia ; thou prayest the mighty Garonne to liarbor 
the enfeebled Tiber." 

It might be supposed that the Visigoths, having 
become so formidable in the eyes of the Romans and 
even of the barbarians, would one day rule the sur- 
rounding nations ; but we have seen how Alaric II., 
the son and successor of Euric, was vanquished near 
Vogladc by King Clovis (507), who left the Visigoths no 
other possession in Gaul than that part of the sea-coast 
called after their name, Gothland, or Septimanca. 



First Epoch. 47 

CoNVERSioi^ OF THE VisiGOTHS (587). — What es- 
pecially contributed to the we^ikness of the Visigoths 
was their adlierence to Arianisni while the surround- 
ing populations remained Catholic. The young 
Amalric, having espoused Clotilda, the daughter of 
Clovis, was less touched by her virtues than irritated 
by her dislike of Arianism, and he treated her with 
such brutality that she sent to her brothers a hand- 
kerchief stained with her blood as a witness of 
her suffering. Clotaire and Childebert, in order to 
avenge their sister, crossed the Pyrenees. Amalric 
lost the battle and his life. With him ended the 
illustrious family of Alaric (531). The crown then 
seeking a wearer was warmly disputed. Athanagild, 
to secure it for himself, called the Greeks into Spain 
and bestowed the hands of his tAvo daughters, Brune- 
haut and Calsuinde, on the kings of Austrasia and 
Neustria. But the crown soon passed to a king of 
another family, who strengthened the rule of the Visi- 
goths by his conquests and led to their conversion 
by his fanatical hatred of the true faith. 

Leovigild (569-586) drove out the Greeks and 
subdued (585) the Suevi, who had, one hundred and 
sixty-six years previously, founded an independent 
kingdom in Galicia. This people, converted to Ca- 
tholicity in the year 562, had exasperated the king 
of the Visigoths by harboring his son, Hermenegild, 
who had lately abjured Arianism. The young prince 
owed his conversion to the prayers of his wife, In- 
gonda, daughter of Brunehaut. His father having 
cast him into prison, promised to restore him to 
liberty and to all his rights as heir to the crown if he 
consented to receive communion at the hands of an 
Arian bishop. Hermenegild refused to consent to so 



48 History of the Middle Auks. 

unworthy a proposal. King Leovigild, beside him- 
self with rage, ordered his son to be beheaded. The 
martyr's blood soon bore its fruits. His brother, 
Kecared. had scarcely ascended the throne when he 
solemnly abjured Arianism, and was followed by the 
greater number of the Visigoths (587). 

The wisdom of Recared and the zeal of St. Lean- 
der, Archbishop of Seville, soon completed the extir- 
pation of heresy. The inhabitants of Spain were now 
united in tlie same faith, and would have long en- 
joyed so precious a benefit had they been worthy ; 
but the looseness of their morals, against which the 
Councils of Toledo protested in vain, drew upon 
them tlie most terrible chastisement. Messengers of 
divine vengeance from the African coasts were des- 
tined in one fatal day to annihilate the power of the 
Visigoths (711). 



CHAPTER V. 

ITALY AND THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 

After the fall of the Western Empire Italy passed successively, 
in less than a century (476-568), under the rule of four na- 
tions — the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, the Greeks, and the Lom- 
bards. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, in vain attempted 
to re-establish the Empire of the West ; the Emperor Jus- 
tinian was scarcely more successful, although, in the eyes of 
the barbarians, the emperors of tlie East had still the right 
to a certain supremacy as successors of the Roman emperors. 

Sec. 1. Italy under the Heruli ; Odoacer (476-493). 

Rome and Italy, having so long swayed the world, 
were, more than any other of the provinces, destined to 
excite the vengeance or the cupidity of the barbarians. 



FmsT ErociL 49 

Odoticer of the Heruli, having abolished even the 
very title of emperor, resolved to establish his do- 
minion there. His first care was to concede by his 
own authority what the feeble Romulus Augustulus 
had refused : he distributed among the Heruli and 
the other barbarian confederates, who had proclaimed 
him king, the third of the lands in all Italy. The 
confusion of the times may extenuate so unjust and 
tyrannical a measure. A certain number of domains 
were at that time unclaimed and uncultivated. Odo- 
acer, moreover, knew how to maintain peace in Italy 
and to direct the warlike tendencies of the confede- 
rates towards the frontier. He carried his victorious 
arms from the city of Eavenna, where he had fixed 
his court, to the shores of the Danube. Rome, so 
often humbled, witnessed with pride the triumph of 
this barbarian king, who left her the senate and 
her ancient constitutions. Even the clergy were the 
objects of unusual regard. Odoacer, though an 
Arian and the ruler of a pagan people, felt the 
influence of the true religion and the admirable vir- 
tues which it alone can produce. Full of veneration 
and gratitude for St. Severinus, who had predicted 
his astonishing rise, he declared himself ready to 
grant the saint whatever he wished. The holy 
apostle of Noricum asked for the pardon of a sup- 
porter of Romulus Augustulus, and then, it is said^ 
with a prophetic glance piercing the veil of the fu- 
ture, he announced that after thirteen years the new 
king of Italy would come to an unhappy end. Thir- 
teen years later the emperor of the East sent the 
Ostrogoths to destroy the domination of the Heruli 
in Italy. 



50 History of tjie' Middle Ages. 

Sec. 2. The Ostrogoths; Theodoric the Great and 
his Successors. 

Defeat and Death of Odoacer (489-493). — 
The Ostrogoths, established in Pannoiiia since the 
dispersion of the Huns, were united under the com- 
mand of one chief, who belonged to the illustrious 
family of the Amalcs. Theodoric, bred at the 
court of Constantinople, had learned to admire By- 
zantine civilization, although he retained th6 vices 
of a barbarian. Playing the empire's ally or enem}-, 
as best suited his interests, his services had Avon him 
the titles of patrician and consul, and his ravages had 
terrified the city of Constantinople. The Emperor 
Zeno, to rid himself of so dangerous a neighbor, ceded 
him all his rights over Italy, in the hope that he 
Avould acknowledge his suzerainty. 

Tlieodoric soon called his Goths together. Two 
hundred thousand warriors, followed by the old men, 
the women and children, opened the way to the nation 
through the mountainous routes of northern Ital}^ 
A victory in the Isonzo, and a second, still more 
bloody, near Verona, routed Odoacer and seemed to 
secure Italy to the conqueror. But in Liguria he 
met a resistance that could not be overcome until 
the arrival of a body of Visigoths sent by Alaric II. 
By this aid Theodoric was enabled to resume the 
offensive. Completely beaten on the Adige, the king 
of the Heruli Avas reduced to defend himself in Ra- 
venna, the blockade of Avhich lasted three years. 
Eome, however, and the rest of Italy submitted to 
Theodoric. The latter, to effect the surrender of 
Eavenna, Avhicli he Avished to make his capital, jiro- 
mised his rival to share Avith him the government 



First Epoch. 51 

of Italy. To this Odoacer assented. Six days after, 
in the midst of a grand banquet given by Theodoric, 
a signal was given : the Goths fell upon the Heruli 
and massacred them, while their king with his own 
hand murdered Odoacer and his young son. At the 
same time similar atrocities were committed in all 
the houses of Ravenna and the neighboring cities 
(March 5, 493). 

Reigk ai^d Institutions of Theodoric. — From 
that time Theodoric assumed the undisputed title 
of King of the Goths and Romans, till the time 
came when he was pleased to proclaim himself 
King of Italy, though his empire even then was 
no longer limited to Italy, subdued by arms, nor to 
Sicily, ceded by the King of the Vandals, but reached 
beyond the Alps to the Theiss, the Upper Danube, 
and the Rhone. He governed even Southern Gaul 
and Spain, as guardian of his grandson Amalric. 
Through family ties,* by treaties or by victories, 
Theodoric succeeded in acquiring supremacy over 
the kings of the west without serious opposition 
from the emperors Anastasius and Justin. 

After the conquest, a third of the lands and slaves 
was assigned to the Goths, with the obligation, how- 
ever, of paying the taxes as the Romans did. These 
revenues were employed in building palaces, restoring 
ancient monuments, in games and shows, and in fitting 
out a fleet to protect the coasts. Theodoric had a 
love of the arts, favored letters, and reanimated the 



* Theodoric, whose wife was a sister of Clovis, gave his own sister in 
marriage to Thrasamond, King of the Vandals, his niece to Hermanfrid, 
King of the Thuringians, one of his daughters to Sigiemond, King of the 
Burgundians, another to Alaric 11., King of the Visigoths, reserving the 
youngest, Amalasonthe, for Eutharius, a prince of the Amales, wlio was to 
succeed him. 



52 History of the Middle Ah es. 

eloquence of the bar. He maintained the Roman 
legislation and judicial procedure throughout his pro- 
vinces ; he extended its prescriptions even to the 
Goths, by the famous edict that bears his name, with 
the sole clause that at the trial of a Goth a count of 
his nation should preside at the court, with Romans 
for assessors. At the same time he expressly forbade 
the Goths to study jurisprudence and literature, or to 
frequent the schools. ^^To the Romans belong the 
arts of peace, to the Goths those of war," said 
Theodoric. In fact, the Goths alone entered the 
army. 

TlIEODOmC CEASES TO BE NeUTRAL AND BE- 
COMES A Persecutor. — In the meanwhile Theodoric 
had been very impartial in regard to Catholicity. He 
refused to join the Emperor Anastasius in legislating 
about dogmas, and exerted himself to bring about 
the union between the Churches of Rome and Con- 
stantinople ; he abolished the law of Odoacer, which 
made the election of the popes subject to the appro- 
val of princes ; lie declared for Pope Symmachus 
against his crafty competitor. Fervent Catholics, 
such as the patricians^ Festus, Symmachus, and Boe- 
thius, enjoyed his favor ; Cassiodorus was his secre- 
tary ; bishops, as St. Epiphanius and Ennodius of 
Pavia, exercised a great and salutary influence over 
him. 

Unfortunately these good qualities did not continue 
to the end. The accession to the empire of the 
Catholic Justin I. (518) attracted attention to Con- 
stantinople. Theodoric took umbrage at this, and he 
gave ear to informers. One of his first victims was 
the illustrious Boethius, guilty of wishing to shield 
one of his friends and of daring to expostulate with 



First Epoch. 53 

Theodoric. He was imprisoned, then horribly tor- 
tured by rack and rods, till his eyes started from their 
sockets. At last he was beheaded, with his father- 
in-law, Symmachus. Theodoric claimed the right 
of persecuting the Catholics throughout his states, 
and of protecting his co-religionists in the East, 
from whom Justin had withdrawn the privilege of 
public worship. Pope John I., who declined to 
advise Justin favorably to the Arian heresy, was 
seized by order of Theodoric and thrown into the 
dungeons of Eavenna, where he soon died from 
25rivation. The king survived him but three months, 
during which time he was harrowed by remorse, un- 
easiness, and forebodings (o2G). 

Theodoric by many historians is surnamed the 
Great, nor could this title be denied him were it 
230ssible to forget his conduct towards Odoacer, Sym- 
machus, Boethius, and Pope St. John I. 

SuccESSORG OF Theodoric. — Tlicodoric was suc- 
ceeded by his grandson, Athalaric; whose mother, 
Amalasonthe, a most accomplished woman, ruled 
with great firmness, in accord with the emperors of 
the East. But the Goths, who were still barbarians, 
were desirous of educating their young king after the 
manner of their ancestors. The princess then raised 
her cousin Theodotus to the throne with herself. 
This nephew of the great Theodoric was thoroughly 
accomplished, but he was as avaricious as a barbarian 
and as dastardly as a degenerate Eoman. He impri- 
soned and strangled his benefactress, desjjite the 
tears of the Italians and the remonstrances of the 
emperor of the East (535). This emperor was Jus- 
tinian, whose generals, Belisarius and Narses, were to 
rid Italy of the Ostrogoths, notwithstanding the 



54 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

courageous efforts of Vitigcs and Totila, worthy suc- 
cessors of Tlieodoric. 

Sec. 3. The Eastern Empire after Theodosius ; 

Reign of Justinian (527-5G5) ; Belisarius and 

Narses. 

Theodosian" Dykasty. — The reign of Arcadius, 
eldest son of Theodosius, worthily begins the his- 
tory of tlie emperors of Constantinople. For ten 
centuries and a half cowardice, sloth, or cruelty cha- 
racterized all but five or six princes; low intrigues and 
shameful adulations, the subjects ; culpable support 
was given to heresy and schism ; there was a rapid 
and nearly always bloody succession of emperors and 
dynasties, and a gradual diminution of imperial pos- 
sessions and individual resources. And tliis was the 
period of what is fitly known as the Loiver Empire, 

In speaking of the invasions we have given the 
external history of Arcadius. Let us add that this 
prince disliked to appear in public, and the only 
energy that his wife the Empress Eudoxia showed 
was in taking revenge on the eloquent archbishop, 
St. John Chrysostom. If the weak Theodosius II., 
son of Arcadius, enjoyed some years of calm during 
his long reign, celebrated for the promulgation of a 
code and the holding of tlie great councils of 
Ephesus, he was indebted to his sister St. Pulcheria. 
This noble i:)rincess, who succeeded to the power on 
the death of Theodosius, rendered great service to 
the Church and the state by associating with lier- 
self the virtuous Marcian, who was equally capa- 
ble of repelling Attila and condemning Eutyches. 
AVitli him expired the dynasty of Theodosius the 
Great (457). 



First Epoch, 55 

Thracian- Dy^-asty. — Leo I., a mere tribune of 
Thracian birth, was elected to succeed Marcian 
tlirougli the exertions of the patrician Aspar. A 
zealous Catholic, Leo was the first prince that re- 
ceived the crown from the hands of a Pontiff. Hav- 
ing caused his frontiers to be respected, he attem23ted 
to avert the ruin of the West by attacking the Van- 
dals of Africa ; but it was in vain, perhaps through 
the fault of As2:)ar, an Alan by nation and an Arian 
by religion. Leo caused him to be cruelly murdered 
by his father-in-law, Zeno. Zeno afterwards seized 
the reins of the empire, first as regent, at the death 
of Leo L, then as emperor, at the death of 
Leo II., his own son, who reigned less than a year. 
The reign of Zeno, interrupted one year by the usur- 
pation of Basiliscus, was prolonged amidst the fac- 
tions of the circus, the disturbances of the people 
crushed under the load of taxes, and by storms ex- 
cited by a so-called decree of union {lienaticon), 
which the emioeror wished to impose upon conscien- 
ces. Scarcely any attention was paid to the final dis- 
solution of the Empire of the West. To Zeno, by 
means of an intrigue of the palace, succeeded Anas- 
tasius, then sixty years of age, who had never drawn 
the sword, though obliged to defend the empire 
against the Scenitic Arabs, the Bulgarians, and espe- 
cially against Cabad, King of Persia, whom Anas- 
tasius succeeded in disarming with gold. This 
cowardly old man strenuously upheld the heresy of 
Eutyches during his reign of twenty-seven years 
(491-518). 

The JusTiiTiAN' Dynasty. — Eaised to the throne 
by the soldiers under his command, Justin I., though 
seventy years of age, and unable to read or write, 



oG History of the Middle Ages. 

restored Catholicity throughout tlie East, and made 
tlie king of Persia tremble on his throne, lie adopt- 
ed his nephew Justinian, who succeeded him in 527. 

Reigk" of Justinian (527-5G5). — Notwithstand- 
ing the odious recollections that his name awakens, 
Justinian is one of the imposing figures of history. 
Victories, public works, jurisprudence, are his titles 
to immortality which cannot be denied, even when 
we remember the severe censures, well-founded accu- 
sations, and the revolutions of the hippodrome, which 
almost deprived him of the empire. 

War against the Vandals ; Belisarius. — 
Hilderic, fifth King of the Vandals, had restored 
peace to the Church of Africa, when he was dethron- 
ed by Gelimer, who rencAved the persecution. Jus- 
tinian sent the famous Belisarius against the usurper 
(534). On landing in Africa, the Roman general by 
a victory threw open the gates of Carthage, defeated 
anew and took Gelimer at Tricameron ; then, having 
restored all Africa to the allegiance of the Empire, 
he returned triumphant, laden with the spoils of the 
nations pillaged by the Vandals, and followed by a 
captive king. Belisarius was honored with the con- 
sulate. This dignity, the last vestige of the ancient 
Roman Republic, was about to disappear for ever. 

War against the Ostrogoths ; Belisarius 
AND Narses. — The African expedition had lasted 
but nine months. The war declared in 534 by Jus- 
tinian against the Ostrogoths of Italy was to last 
twenty years. Belisarius, the victor of Africa, 
appeared in Sicily, then in Italy, where he took 
Rhegium and Naples (536). Unworthy of com- 
manding the Goths, Tlieodatus was deposed and re- 
placed by Vitiges, Avho had him put to death. The 



First Epoch. 5*7 

new king tried to conciliate the esteem of the Italians 
and the good will of the Franks, but Belisarius con- 
tinued to advance, subduing Italy and taking posses- 
sion of Eome. The siege of this city by Vitiges in- 
flicted on the inhabitants a whole year of unspeakable 
evils. Belisarius heroically defended himself with a 
handful of soldiers against 150,000 Goths ; he was, 
however, guilty of exiling Pope St. Silverius. The 
plague alone forced Vitiges to raise the siege. The 
same scourge fell likewise upon the army of Austra- 
sian Franks, who were pouring into Italy to enrich 
themselves at the expense of the Eomans and Ostro- 
goths. Belisarius then deemed himself strong 
enough to besiege Ravenna. Vitiges capitulated and 
was brought by his conqueror to Constantinople 
(540.) 

While Belisarius, at the head of the Eastern army, 
painfully battled against the Persians, who Avere 
plundering Syria under their king, Khosroes I., the 
Ostrogoths of Italy were again forming their bat- 
talions under the standards of two ephemeral kings, 
soon replaced by the valiant Totila. For ten years 
this king prolonged the existence of Gothic power. 
Belisarius himself, on returning to Italy, obtained 
but trivial success and asked to be recalled. It w\as 
reserved to Narses to put an end to the Goths. iVt 
the head of an army of barbarians he gained (July, 
552) the bloody victory of Tagina, which was fol- 
lowed by the death of Totila. Teias prolonged the 
struggle in vain ; he held out two days near Vesu- 
vius, but was finally slain. Narses freely permitted 
the remnants of the Ostrogoths to recross the Alps. 
An army of Austrasian Franks having arrived too 
late to aid Teias, ravaged the country, but being 



58 History of the Middle Ages. 

decimated by disease, was crushed by Narses near 
Casilin. Thus Italy was restored to the allegiance 
of the empire. Narses was its first exarch (554). 

Policy of Justii^-iax. — These conquests of the 
emj^ire in the \Yest were completed by the submis- 
sion of Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Isles, and 
Southern Spain. But Justinian did not suffi- 
ciently distrust the Lombards that he had in- 
troduced into Pannonia ; for they were more to 
be apprehended than the Gepidse whom they op- 
posed. The northern frontier was as little respected 
by these savage guards as it was by their recent allies, 
the Avarr, and iiheir hideous rivals of the lower 
Danube, the Bulgarians. In vain Justinian erected 
citadels and strongholds in the provinces ; they were 
but monuments of the empire's weakness. Another 
proof of its. decline was the disgraceful treaty con- 
cluded w4tli Khosroes, by which Justinian, bound 
himself to pay the Persians an annual tribute of 
30,000 pieces of gold. By such a tribute was the east- 
ern frontier of the empire restored to tranquillity. 

The sacred and profane edifices erected by Jus- 
tinian attest his munificence. The church of St. 
Sophia at Constantinople, now a mosque, still ex- 
cites admiration. 

JusTiNiAK AKD THE RoMAK Laav. — The greatest 
glory of Justinian, however, lies in the monuments 
of jurisprudence which he undertook or directed. 
His aim was to transform the ancient pagan law into 
a legislation less changeable, more equitable, and at 
the same time to render it Christian. In the be- 
ginning of his reign he assembled the most learned 
civilians of his time ; at their head he placed 
Tribonian, Theophilus, and Dorotheus. Naturally 



First Epoch. 59 

affable, frugal, and enterprising, lie set himself ac- 
tively to work at this gigantic but useful labor. 
In six years appeared : 1, the '' Digest," or Pandects, 
an abridgment in fifty books of more than two 
thousand treatises on law, as laid down by the 
Eoman jurisconsults of the first three centuries of 
the Empire, Ulpian, Paulus, Gains Papinian, etc. ; 
2, the " Institutes," an elementary w^ork on law, to 
serve both as a manual for students at Rome, Con- 
stantinople, and Berytus, and as a text-book for pro- 
fessors and judges ; 3, the ^^ N'ew Code," containing, 
in the same order as the '^'^ Digest," the unrej^ealed 
constitutions of preceding emperors. From the 
publication of the code till his death, Justinian con- 
tinued to promulgate a number of laws or constitu- 
tions ; they were compiled in a fourth book, under 
the title of ^^ Novelise." Such is the Body of the 
Roman Law (Corpus juris Romani) as it has been 
taught from the sixth century to our own day. It 
is also known as the Civil Law. The emperor died 
(565) after a reign of thirty-eight years : a long dura- 
tion compared wdth that of other reigns in the LoAver 
Empire. Eight months before died the great gen- 
eral, Belisarius : not dej^rived of sight, nor reduced 
to beggary, as some have believed, but continually 
exposed to suspicions and envy, and weighed down 
by domestic griefs. Justinian too often allowed him- 
self to be embittered against this remarkable man by 
Theodora, his unworthy wife, or by the criminal An- 
tonina, whom Belisarius, to his own misfortune, had 
espoused. 

Successors of Justiniak. — Justinian's successor 
was the most courtly but not the most able- of his five 
jiephew^s, Justinian II., the husband of Sophia, niece 



GO HiSTOIiY OF THE 31lDDLE AGES. 

of Theodora. His reign was a tissue of blunders and 
crimes. The new emperor, ill-advised by his wife, 
alienated his generals, particularly Narses, exaspe- 
rated the Avari, wantonly displeased the mighty 
Khosroes, and drew upon himself such woes as de- 
prived him of reason. Nevertheless, the Empress 
Sophia laudably counselled him to entrust the com- 
mand to the excellent general Tiberius Constantino, 
who humbled Khosroes and his son Hormisdas, but 
was unable to eifect anything against the Lombards. 
Maurice, the son-in-law and successor of Tiberius II., 
gloriously concluded the war against the Persians. 
Khosroes II., whom he defended against an usurper, 
became a faitliful ally. Yet his generals were unsuc- 
cessful against the Avari, owing to want of military 
discipline. The army at last revolted at the instiga- 
tion of the centurion Phocas, whom they proclaimed 
emperor (602). Maurice saw five of his sons be- 
headed before he himself received the mortal stroke. 
His eldest son, Theodosius, was killed shortly after, 
as also the Empress Constantina and her three sons. 
Eight years later Heraclius retaliated upon the cruel 
Phocas. Thus closed the first period and the third 
dynasty of the Lower Empire. 

Sec. 4. The Lombards in Italy (568-774). 

Alboin. — The Lombards, established in Pannonia 
by Justinian, coveted the possession of Italy from the 
time of the expulsion of the Ostrogoths. Alboin, 
their king, feared Narses, however, and jDreferred to 
crush the Gepida? in alliance with the Avari, recently 
come from Asia. While his allies took the territory 
of the vanquished, Alboin was satisfied to have the 
skull of his son-in-law Cunimond, king of the 



First Epoch. G1 

Gepida?, for a drinking-cup. The subjects of Alboin 
resembled him by iissuming the iippearance of fero- 
cious animals thirsting for blood. They shaved the 
back of the head, and let their hair hang -down in 
front in two hideous tresses that blended Avitli the 
beard, from which they derived the name of Lom- 
bard (longbeard). The Lombards watched the op- 
portunity to pounce upon Italy. The Emperor 
Justinian II. aided their cause by unseasonably re- 
calling the aged Narses, whom the Empress Sophia 
detested. The expostulations of the general pro- 
voked only a more positive and humiliating recall. 
Then, consulting only his desire of revenge, Parses 
quitted Eavenna, withdrew to Naples, and, it is said, 
enticed the Lombards to invade Italy. A counter 
order, which his friend Pope John III. induced the 
dying Narses to issue, came too late ; the barbarians 
were already on the way (568). 

Alboin cleared the Julian Alps without difficulty 
and founded the Lombard duchy of Friuli. Arrived 
at Milan he had himself proclaimed by his soldiers 
King of Italy; then he marched upon the south, 
where he founded the duchies of Spoleto and Bene- 
ventum. Other duchies were founded by his victori- 
ous chiefs, while the king was besieging Pavia, which 
held out for three years. This city became the 
capital of the Lombard kingdom, which lasted two 
hundred years (573-774). 

Rome, Eavenna, several maritime cities of the north 
and some provinces of the south were all that re- 
mained to the emperors of the East. The exarch of 
Eavenna was the representative of the emperors in 
Italy. Central Italy was subjected to barbarian feu- 
dalism. Alboin did not long enjoy his triumph. 



02 IItstory of the Middle Ages. 

During a banquet ]ie ostentatiously drank from the 
skull of Cunimond. ^'Do you also drink from your 
father's cup," said the barbarian to the queen. She 
made no answer, but a few days after caused him to 
be assassinated. Tlic Lombards, however, took sum- 
mary vengeance upon her. 

The Lombard Kingdom. — Cleph, who was elected 
to succeed Alboin, ravaged Italy, slew many Romans, 
and was in turn slain after a reign of two years (575). 
The ten following years there was an interregnum, 
during which the nation was ruled by thirty-six 
dukes. At last their dread of the Austrasian Franks, 
who were allies of the Emperor Maurice, impelled 
them to choose Cleph's son, Antharis, as king. His 
election, like that of his father, consisted in the pre- 
sentation of a pike, a ceremony which the conferring 
of the famous Iron Crown afterwards superseded. 
Antharis defeated the Greeks, and made a sudden 
attack on Rhegium, opposite Messina, when he was 
carried off by the phigue. His widow, Theodolinda, 
was the daughter of a Bavarian prince. In 590 she 
married the Duke of Turin, Agiluph, who was imme- 
diately elected king by the Lombards. At the en- 
treaty of the queen and the solicitation of Pope St. 
Gregory the Great, he abjured Arianism. His action 
was imitated by many of his subjects, and there is no 
doubt that their relations with the ancient inhabi- 
tants of the country were much bettered by the 
change ; still the character of the Lombard nation 
always betrayed itself in the instability of the sov- 
ereigns, the merciless rapacity of the lords, and a 
lasting hostility to the popes. 



First Epoch. 63 

CHAPTEE YI. 
THE CHURCH AND THE BARBARIANS. 

The Holy Catholic Church defends revealed dogma against the 
sophisms of the Orientals ; she converts and civilizes the 
barbarians who invaded the Empire of the West. 

Sec. 1. The Church Confronted with Heresies; Aii- 

tliority of tlie Cliurcli. 

When the barbarians, at the time indicated by 
Providence, spread out over the Eoman provinces 
and shared the fragments of the imperial wreciv, the 
Chnrch for a moment seemed lost to sight. But 
soon she was beheld towering aloft unharmed, the 
sacred deposit of faith, enforcing the respect and 
commanding the obedience of the rude children of 
the jSTorth. It is a remarkable thing that amidst the 
din and confusion brought about in the West by the 
barbarian invaders, the independent voice of St. 
Peter's successor was heard warning the East, only 
spared from the tramp of the invader, as it seems, to 
become the hotbed of heresy and schism. 

In the East the fourth century witnessed the rise 
of the dangerous heresy of Arius, a deacon of Alex- 
andria, and this soon led to the heresy of Macedo- 
nius. Bishop of Constantinople. These two errors 
destroy the fundamental dogma of the Trinity, and 
were condemned by the (Ecumenical Councils of Kice 
and ConstantinojDle. These heresies soon infected 
the barbarous nations destined to chastise the old 
Eoman world and to be in turn chastised or wholly 
transformed by grace. 

Heresies of Pelagius, NestoriuSj akd Eu- 



64 History of the Middle Ahes. 

TYCHEs; Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. 
— In the fifth century a heresy wliich liiicl had its 
inspiration in the East spread rapidly through the 
West. Its author was a British monk named Pehx- 
gius. The Pelagian heresy attacked grace. Imme- 
diately exposed by holy doctors, and especially by the 
illustrious St. Augustine, condemned by popes and 
deprived of the support of princes, Pelagianism was 
at once stifled. Then Nestorianism and Eutychian- 
ism appeared at Constantinople itself. Although 
these two heresies were diametrically opposed to one 
another, yet both assailed the dogmas of the Incar- 
nation and Eedemption. The patriarch Nestorius 
taught that there are in Jesus Christ two separate 
persons, that of the AVord the eternal Son of God, 
and that of Christ the mortal son of Mary, and that, 
consequently, the Blessed Virgin should not be called 
Mother of God. Led into an opposite extreme, the 
Abbot Eutyches confused the divine and the human 
natures of our Lord, which are, however, so clearly 
distinct. The (Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (431) 
deposed Nestorius from his see, and defined the two 
natures and one person in Jesus Christ, and, amidst 
the joyful exclamations of the people of Ephesus, 
declared Mary to be the Mother of God {OeoTOuo^). 
The heresy of the monk Eutyches, already condemn- 
ed by the great pope St. Leo, but supported by a cabal 
called the Latrocinium, or council of robbers, was 
solemnly anathematized anew in the Council of Chal- 
cedon, in presence of the Empress St. Pulcheria and 
her consort, the Emperor Marcian (451). 

SciiisH OF AcAcius. — Fifth (Ecumenical Coun- 
cil. — The East did not long remain orthodox. The 
ambition of the bishojis of Constantinople, sup- 



First Epoch, 65 

ported by tho Greek emperors, was a torment to the 
Cliurcli. The Patriarch Acacius urged the Emperor 
Zeiio, under the pretext of restoriug unity, to pub- 
lish an edict (henoticon) which favored the Euty- 
chians. Thence resulted a schism which for thirty- 
five years separated Constantinople from Eome, and 
led to one unfortunately of much greater duration. 
The Emperor Anastasius went to still greater lengths 
than his predecessor. He tore up the original acts of 
the Council of Chalcedon and imprisoned or massa- 
cred the orthodox priests. The peace restored by 
Justin I. was again compromised by Justinian. In 
his imprudent and tyrannical zeal he demanded the 
condemnation of the three chapters or books whose 
authors had been justified by the Fathers of Chalce- 
don. This was calculated to weaken the authority of 
that great assembly, and to favor the monophysite 
heresy of Eutyches. It was necessary to summon a 
new oecumenical council (553), in which Pope Vigilius 
made amends for his former weakness by a display of 
apostolic firmness within the very walls of Constanti- 
nople, in the presence of the emperor and of the Em- 
press Theodora, the protectress of the heresy. In the 
East everything, even the Creed, depended on impe- 
rial caprice. The institutions of the Caesars were 
modified by the whims of princes, the fickleness of 
the Greek character, and the stubbornness of the 
Orientals. This people held fast to the heresies of 
the fiftb century, and have been punished for their 
waywardness by having to bear the brutalizing yoke 
of Mohammed. 

The Westerks ; the Call of the Baebari- 
A:srs. — The barbarians of the Xorth swept down like 
a resistless torrent upon the West. The result of 



Cj(j History of the Middle Ages. 

these invasions, liowever, was the growth of union 
among the western nations and a greater loyalty to 
the faith of the Holy Roman Church. Popes, bish- 
ops, monks, saints, and sages Avere all employed in in- 
structing these new races, and we shall see later with 
how much success. 

The Monks of the West. — The love of solitude, 
with the approval of Christianity, soon peopled the 
deserts of the Thebaid, of Syria and Asia Minor. 
The life of the hermit St. Antony, written by St. 
Athanasius, and the monastic rules drawn up by St. 
Basil the Great, as well as the apology for the monks 
composed by St. John Chrysostom, all served to en- 
courage a desire for the religious life. Monasteries 
arose throughout the East, even in the great cities. 
To these asylums fled imperilled innocence and re- 
pentant crime, the fortunate and the unfortunate, 
the lowly and the great. In the West the monastic 
system had been at an early date introduced by SS. 
Eusebius, Hilarion, Ambrose, and Jerome. St. Mar- 
tin had fitted himself for the apostolate in the soli- 
tude of Ligugi, near Poitiers. On his elevation to 
the episcopate he founded the celebrated abbey of 
Marmoutiers, near Tours. In Ireland, St. Patrick had 
marked his every step with a monastery. St. Augus- 
tine had converted his episcopal household into a reg- 
ular community, which served as a model for many 
others. St. Benedict (480-543), however, is the true 
patriarch of tlie monks of the West. The grotto of 
Subiaco, near Eome, and the monastery of Monte 
Cassino, in the vicinity of Naples, were two hives 
wlience issued swarms of monks. The monasteries 
established by them sanctified labor, taught prayer 
and virtue, harbored letters, and civilized the barba- 



First Epoch. 67 

rians. The rule of St. Benedict became the univer- 
sal monastic code in the West, as was the rule of St. 
Basil in the East. As the sons of St. Benedict ex- 
celled their predecessors in activity and enterprise, 
so have they exceeded them in their influence upon 
the world. Mingling more freely with men, they 
taught, preached, advised, sometimes as simple monks 
or missionaries, sometimes in the episcopal character, 
or even as the representatives of the Sovereign Pontiff. 
The Benedictines have given to the Church about 
6,000 bishops, 200 cardinals, and 35 popes. 

Saints and Bishops. — During the first two cen- 
turies of the mediaeval age the East was edified by 
the virtues of SS. Cyril of Alexandria, Flavian of 
Constantinople, John Climacus, and the Empress 
St. Pulcheria. At the same time flourished in the 
West SS. Genevieve, Severinus, Giles, and many holy 
monks and nuns who trod the lowly walks of life. 
On the thrones of the barbarians sat SS. Clotilda and 
Eadegonda, SS. Sigismond and Hermenegild, SS. 
Cloud, Gontran, and Ethelbert. In the episcopate, 
not to mention the incomparable doctor, St. Augus- 
tine, St. Epiphanius, in Italy ; St. Fulgentius, in 
Africa ; St. Leander, in Spain ; St. Austin of Can- 
terbury, in England ; St. Patrick, in Ireland ; and in 
France, St. Avitus of Vienne, St. Sidonius of Cler- 
mont, St. Eemi of Rheims, St. Gregory of Tours, the 
first historian of the Franks, and many others. 

Letters akd Arts. — The East, more tranquil 
during this period, incontestably retained its supre- 
macy in history, poetry, and the arts. In the West 
the barbarians did not, of course, favor literary or 
artistic productions, with the sole exception of Theo- 
doric, whose name recalls Boethius, the philosopher 



68 History of the Middle A gks, 

and i)Oct ; Cassiodorus, tlic learned writer ; Enno- 
dius, the orator and historian. In this reign, too, 
were built tlie palaces of Ravenna, Verona, and 
Pavia. But, even beyond the limits of Italy, we may 
name as orators, historians, and even as poets, the 
greater number of the holy bishops just mentioned, 
as SS. Avitus and Sidonius ; and to these should be 
added Venantius Fortunatus. The abbeys, too, were 
beginning to be centres of learning Avherein were 
taught not only the transcribing of ancient books, 
but also sacred eloquence, history, the arts and sci- 
ences, as well as the composition of hymns and the 
sacred poetry of the Church. 

The Popes. — Twenty-five pontiffs succeeded to the 
chair of St. Peter from the death of St. Siricius, in 
398, to the election of St. Gregory the Great, in 590. 
All of them, frequently at the peril of their lives, 
displayed ardent zeal in defending the faith in the 
East and in propagating it in the West. Most of 
them are venerated as saints. Conspicuous amongst 
them are the two illustrious doctors of the Church, 
SS. Leo and Gregory. 

Sec. 2. Conversion of the Barbarians. 

The Ariax Barbariak^s. — In permitting inva- 
sion to be directed against the West, Providence 
doubtless designed to bring the invaders within 
hearing of the voice of the Roman Pontiffs. Near- 
ly all the barbarians who came in collision with the 
empire were infected with Arianism, which consist- 
ed in denying the divinity of that Jesus Christ in 
whose name they had been baptized. Many never 
renounced their errors, and all of these soon totally 
disappeared. The Alans and the Ileruli — half Arians, 



First Epoch. 69 

half i^agans — vanished before the sixth century ; the 
Vandals lasted but a century ; the Ostrogoths, whose 
outset was so brilliant, ended their career in sixty 
years ; finally the Gepidae were crushed on the very 
threshold of the empire. 

The other Arian barbarians, though slow to aban- 
don their errors, underwent a thorough transfor- 
mation. More than a century had elapsed since 
the settlement of the Burgundians in Gaul before 
they abjured Arianism under their king, St. Sigis- 
mund (517). Several years later their kingdom be- 
came subject to the Franks, though it still retained 
its name. The Suevi cantoned in Galicia were not 
converted till 562, after a century and a half of inde- 
pendence ; they soon after blended with the Visi- 
goths. These latter renounced their heresy in 587, 
after the death of the cruel Leovigild, who had immo- 
lated his eldest son, Hermenegild. Recared, the 
martyr's brother, also a Catholic, had the happi- 
ness of reconciling all his subjects to holy mother 
Church. Thus united in the faith, Spain was pre- 
pared to undergo the most terrible ordeals without 
losing her faith, courage, or nationality. The Lom- 
bards, through the influence of the pious Theodo- 
linda, were converted in the reign of Agiluph, during 
the pontificate of St. Gregory. 

The PaCtAN^ Barbaeiaks.— Two tribes had pene- 
trated the Roman territories having no knowledge 
of Christianity — the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, who 
were idolaters and votaries of Odin. 

Mission- of the Fean^ks akd Akglo-Saxoks. — 
The miracle of Tolbiac, followed up by the instruc- 
tions of SS. Waast and Remi, by the solemnity of 
Rheims on Christmas night, 496, when baptism was 



70 History of the Middle Ages. 

conferred on the Frankish warriors and their king, 
caused joy throughout the Catliolic world. Tlic 
Franks were the first converts among tlie harba- 
rians, and came at once to the true faith, so that they 
were truly the eldest sons of the Church. Not a 
prince of that time except the king of the Franks 
was Catholic. Well did St. Avitus, a Burgundian, 
exclaim on addressing Clovis : *' Oh ! how full of con- 
solation this sacred night has been to the Holy 
Church. Your good fortune has won many victories, 
but your piety shall win still more. We are of a 
different nation, but we share in your glory, and your 
victory is ours." Pope Anastasius wrote : ** Glorious 
and illustrious son, be the consolation of your mother, 
the Holy Church ; be an unshaken column for her 
support. We give thanks to the Lord thai? he has 
brought you out of the power of darkness to bestow 
on his Church so great a prince, a champion for her 
defence against all enemies." 

We have related how the monk Austin landed on 
the Isle of Thanet, his coming to Canterbur}^, and 
the docility of King Ethelbert. From the kingdom 
of Kent Christianity spread, though not Avithout hin- 
drance, into the neighboring kingdoms from south 
to north, from Saxons to Angles ; bishoprics were 
erected, monasteries founded, and Catholic England 
could furnish missionaries to convert other northern 
tribes, and at the same time cultivate letters and 
sacred sciences under the patronage of the Eoman 
Pontiffs. That was her mission, and well might she 
glory in it ; nor should Catholics, especially those of 
Germany, ever forget it. 

Triumph of the Church ; St. Gregory the 
Great (September 3, 590-March 12, 604^. — The 



First Epoch. 71 

barbarians overrunning the Roman provinces in search 
of plnnder, thirsting for blood and vengeance, and 
looking for fertile lands to occupy, would, in the 
natural order of things, have trampled down civiliza- 
tion and overthrown the Church. But two centuries 
passed away, a century less than was needed to con- 
vert the Roman world, and the invading barbarians 
were either annihilated or, having become Catholics, 
were helping to organize a new civilization. 

In A.D. 600, the great Pope St. Gregory I., triumph- 
ant at last over the most terrible assaults, saw with 
thanksgiving that the reign of Jesus Christ Avas 
spreading out even beyond the ancient limits of the 
empire. In tlie East his will, if not punctually 
obeyed, was respected by the Emperor Maurice and 
the usurper Phocas ; Armenia, Persia, Arabia, Ethio- 
pia, even China, numbered many Christians. In the 
West the Lombards alone, though converted to the 
faith, caused apprehension by their rapacity, though 
from time to time they yielded to the moral influence 
of the Papacy. The Visigoth kings of Spain and the 
Merovingians of France afforded consolation, and the 
kings of the Anglo-Saxon hei^tarchy gave the fairest 
hopes. The schools of Ireland were thronged by 
students from all parts of Europe. The Roman 
pontiff could give his undivided attention to works 
of inexhaustible charity, to the administration of the 
important temporalities of his see, the reorganization 
of the episcopacy in the provinces, and the splendor 
of divine' worship. This he did by learned treatises, 
by memorable liturgical compositions, and by the 
ecclesiastical chant which bears his name. The na- 
tions were evangelized, Christ reigned, the Church 
was triumphant. 



SECOND EPOCH (G04-814), 

FROM THE DEATH OF ST. GREGORY THM 
GREAT TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMASfNE— 
210 YEARS. 

During this epoch, characterized by the formation of Christian 
Europe, we beliold the Carlovingian and the Arabian rising 
side by side with the Western Empire. The Carlovingians, 
with the concurrence of the Church, olitain the preponderance 
and organize the states arising from the blending of the bar- 
barians with the populations of the Roman Empire. 



CHAPTER I. 
PREPONDERANCE OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

The Carlovingians having become the depositaries of power 
among the Franks, drive the Mohammedans beyond the 
Pyrenees, check the invasion of the German barbarians by 
civilizing them, confirm the temporal sovereignty of the 
Holy See, destroy the kingdom of the Lombards, and re- 
establish under a new form the ancient Empire of the West. 

Sec. 1. The "Sluggard" Kings and the Mayors of the 
Palace (638-752); Pepin of Heristal and Charles 
Mart el. 

The Soks akd Grai^-dsons of Dagobert ; the 
First Carlo vixgiaxs. — On the death of Dagobert 
I, (038) liis states wore divided between liis two 
sons, Sigebert II., who obtained Anstrasia, and 
Clovis II., to wliom were given Neustria and Bur- 
gundy. With these two princes, who were still 
minors, begins the dynasty of the Merovingian kings, 
surnamed the *^ Sluggards," because they did nothing 
worthy of their birth and rank. It is but just to 
remark that the greater number died young, and 



Second Epoch, 73 

that nearly all were reared under the direction of a 
"mayor of the palace," who profited by their weak- 
ness to augment his own power. The mayor of the 
jDalace was originally but the first officer and steward 
of the palace (major domus), whom the king appoint- 
ed or discharged at will. At the death of Sigebert I. 
(575) the grandees of Austrasia claimed the right of 
choosing a mayor for his son, then a child, and this 
dangerous assumption continued despite the oppo- 
sition of Brunehaut. Though the mayorship was 
elective and revocable, on the demand of the Aus- 
trasian lords, who were influenced by Pepin the El- 
der of Landen, it became an office for life (613). 

Thus Pepin prepared the greatness of his family, 
called the Carlovingian, from Charlemagne, its most 
illustrious representative. From the oj^ening of the 
seventh century this family exerted a decisive in- 
fluence in the affairs of Austrasia. It possessed 
immense riches and numerous clients or warriors 
devoted to its service. Its domains have been esti- 
mated at as many as one hundred and twenty-three ; 
among them Landen and Heristal on the banks of 
the Meuse. The zeal of this family for religion is 
above suspicion, as it furnished admirable examples of 
virtue and sanctity. Pepin himself, in his functions 
of mayor of the palace, lived the life of a saint. " In 
all his judgments," says his biograj)her, "he studied 
to conform his decisions to the rules of divine justice; 
he was directed in all his plans and affairs by the 
Blessed Arnulf, Bishop of Metz, whom he knew to be 
eminent in the fear and love of God. Abhorring all 
evil, he acted justly and honorably, and was firm in 
the exercise of good works." Grimoald, son of Pepin, 
succeeded him as mayor of the palace and iiilierited 



74 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

liis talents, but not his moderation and fidelity. At 
the death of Sigebert II. (050) he undertook to place 
on the throne his own son instead of the royal heir, 
whom he secretly sent to Ireland, under the pretence 
of being educated there, but reaDy to keep him out 
of the way. This usurpation cost him his life. 

The Merovingians would never have had reason to 
fear for the crown if all who ruled in their name had 
had the virtues of St. Bathilda. This pious queen, the 
widow of Clovis II., was regent during the minority of 
her eldest son, Clotaire III. Her tender charity for the 
unfortunate and her efforts to abolish slavery in the 
kingdom of the Franks had conciliated the affection 
of the people, when she wiis dethroned by an ambi- 
tious U23start. Ebroin, having by intrigues obtained 
the office of mayor of the palace, employed the most 
violent means to subvert every measure that was cal- 
culated to lessen his authority. Tramj^ling under 
foot the laws of the kingdom and selling justice, 
he lavished his favors on adventurers, while the lords 
were cither desj)oiled of their possessions and dig- 
nities or exiled and put to death ; even the Bishop 
of Paris fell by the dagger of an assassin. After 
the death of Clotaire the arrogant minister thought 
he could dispose of the crown ; but he was foiled, 
and owed his life to the intervention of St. Leger, 
Bishop of Autun, Avhom he regarded with impla- 
cable hatred. After a banishment of several months, 
spent in the monastery of Luxeuil, he recovered his 
titles and his power. The holy Bishop of Autun 
was the first victim of his vengeance. Having sur- 
rendered himself, in order to save his people, his eyes 
were put out and he was then i)ut to death like a 
malefactor. 



Secosd Erocii. 75 

Ebroin, undisputed master of Neustria and Bur- 
gundy, was planning to bring Austrasia under his 
tyrannical yoke when he in turn fell by the dagger 
of an assassin (681). The Austrasians, weary of his 
rule, had already chosen as their duke (679) the head 
of the Carlovingian family, Pepin of Heristal, grand- 
son of Pepin the Elder and of St. Arnulf . An astute 
politician and indefatigable warrior, Pepin of Heri- 
stal profited by the state of affairs ; he refused to de- 
liver u\} a great number of Neustrian and Burgundian 
lords who had sought shelter in Austrasia. Bertaire, 
successor of Ebroin in the mayorship of the palace, 
appealed to arms, but lost the battle and his life 
(687). Thus Pepin of Heristal secured the triumph 
of Austrasia over Neustria. Ruling thenceforth, in 
the name of King Thierry III., over all the empire of 
the Franks, he restored order and enforced his autho- 
rity. He carried his victorious arms into Germany, 
and again subdued the Germans, Bavarians, Fri- 
sians, and Saxons ; but, to subdue these races who 
were still pagan, he relied less on the power of his 
arms than on the zeal of the missionaries. He gave a 
good part of the twenty-seven years of his govern- 
ment (687-714) to the spread of the Gospel, and he 
had the glory of contributing to the success of St. 
"Willibrod, apostle of the Frisians. 

Charles Martel (714-741) ; Battle of Tours 
(732) ; E:n'd of the Merovii^giaks (752). — Pepin 
of Heristal had confided to his wife, Gertrude, the 
guardianship of his grandson, but five j^ears old, al- 
ready named mayor of tlie palace. A woman and a 
child could not control so many warlike races. The 
Austrasians, attacked in their own country, put at 
their head a son of Pepin, who inherited all his 



7G liii^Tour or the Middle Ages. 

jibility, known later as Charles Martel, because like a 
hammer he crushed his enemies. By his first success 
he delivered Austrasia ; he then advanced to the walls 
of Soissons, and in one day upset the projects of the 
Keustrians, then leagued with Eudes, Duke of Aqui- 
taine (719). Soon afterwards the tributaries of Ger- 
many were compelled to return to their allegiance. 

Charles, now sole master, was called upon to resist 
the Mussulmans, who, after ravaging a great j^art of 
Asia and Africa, had just apjiearcd in Spain, where 
they destroyed the monarchy of the Visigoths. The 
design of Abd-er-Rahman, their general, w^a^ to ex- 
terminate or to enslave all the inhabitants of France 
and establish Mohammedanism on the ruins of Chris- 
tianity. The frightened people fled m all directions. 
The Duke of Aquitaine had been defeated near Bor- 
deaux, and the infidels had almost reached Tours, 
wdien Charles came up to encounter them. He vigo- 
rously attacked the infidels, captured their camp, 
hewed them to pieces, and drove the flying remnants 
into the fastnesses of the Pyrenees. By this glorious 
victory Charles Martel saved not only France but all 
Christendom, and on its account was surnamed '^the 
hammerer." The duke of the Franks, faithfully 
imitating his father, assisted the progress of the 
true faith in Germany. He sent many missionaries 
amongst the idolaters. The most zealous of these 
ivas St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany. So many 
services to Church and state rendered Charles the 
arbiter of the West. His authority among the Franks 
was such that for three years he left the throne with- 
out its " sluggard " king. On his death he divided 
his inheritance between his tAvo sons, Carloman and 
Pepin. The two brothers had just subdued Hunald, 



Second Erocii. 7? 

son of Elides, Duke of Aqiiitainc, when the elder, 
desiring to secure his salvation, retired to the monas- 
tery of Monte Cassino in Italy (747). Pepin, sole ruler 
of the empire, was feared by his neighbors, respected 
by the great, esteemed by bishops, and cherished by 
the people. He thought the time opportune to take 
the final steps to the throne and wear the crown, 
a symbol of the power that he alone exercised. The 
assembly of bishops and lords, by the advice of Pope 
Zachary, proclaimed Pepin and deposed Childerio 
III., who was shut up in a monastery. Thus ended 
the Merovingian dynasty, after reigning two hundred 
and sixty-nine years. 

Sec. 2. Pepin the Short (752-768) and Charle- 
magne (768-814) ; Foundation of the Temporal 
Power of the Poj^es (755) ; Restoration of the 
Western Empire (800). 

Pepij^ rouKDS THE Tempokal Sovereignty of 
THE Holy See (755). — Pepin, consecrated first by St. 
Boniface, Avas again consecrated by Pope Stephen II., 
who had come in person to ask aid for the Holy 
See. Astulph, the king of the Lombards, having 
wrested the exarchate of Ravenna from the Greeks, was 
eager to subdue Rome, which had withdrawn from 
the Eastern Empire. He paid no attention to Pepin's 
warning to abandon his projects. But he was de- 
feated by the Franks and compelled to sign a treaty 
by which he agreed to evacuate the exarchate of 
Ravenna and renounce his claim to the capital of the 
Christian world. Scarcely was the danger averted 
than he A^olated his promises and renewed the siege 
of Rome. Pepin again crossed the Alps and threatened 



78 History of the Middle A a ks. 

to deprive the perjured prince of all his states unless 
he agreed to fulfil the first treaty and pay tribute to 
the Holy See. The keys of all the places donated to 
the Roman Church were laid on the tomb of St. 
Peter, in homage to his sovereignty in the i:)erson of 
his successors. 

Such was the definitive establishment of the tem- 
poral poAver which the popes had wielded for several 
years in Rome and the surrounding cities. As long 
as the Roman Empire covered the known world, the 
sovereign pontiffs shared with the faithful the perse- 
cutions and triumphs of religion ; sometimes protect- 
ed by a Constantine and a Theodosius, at others op- 
pressed by a Constans and a Julian. But after the 
Roman power had given place to so many others, dif- 
fering in aims and in interests, it seemed to please 
Providence to render the popes independent, and to 
invest them with such power as, without rendering 
them formidable, should yet enable them to exercise 
their spiritual authority freely, and untrammelled by 
the secular powers of the Christian world. 

Conquest OF Septimais-ca (759), Aquitaxia (768), 
AND NoRTiiERiir Italy (774). — Pepin the Short, 
more fortunate than his father in his expeditions 
into Septimanca (Valladolid), succeeded in driving 
the infidels from that fair province. An obstinate 
struggle against Waifre, son and successor of the 
Duke Hunald, won for him the honor of being the 
first French king whose dominion took in all ancient 
Gaul (768). 

Brilliant as was the career of Pepin the Short, he 
had a son who was to surpass him and to acquire the 
[surname of Great. Charlemagne (Carolus 'Magnus) 
iiad just received the inheritance of his brother Car- 



Second Epoch. 79 

loman (771), and driven from Aqnitaine the old Duke 
Hunald, when he was obliged to turn his arms against 
the Lombards. King Didier, successor to Astulph, 
surrounded Eome. At the head of a powerful army 
Charles opened a passage through the Alps, and in 
one campaign subdued all Northern Italy. Didier, 
besieged in Pavia, was compelled to abdicate the title 
of king of the Lombards in favor of the victor (774). 
Thus was annihilated a power so long dangerous to 
the Holy See at Eome. Charlemagne renewed the 
alliance of France with the successor of St. Peter. 

AYars with the Saxons (772-804), the Saea- 
CEJ?-s (778), the Bavarians (788), the Slays, 
AND THE AvARi (796). — Charlemagne, endowed with 
prodigious activity, undertook fifty-three expeditions. 
The first after that of Aquitaine was provoked by a 
revolt of the Saxons. That barbarous people, who 
had settled on both banks of the Weser, detested the 
Franks, because they had adopted the Eoman faith 
and manners. To avenge the massacre of missionaries 
and the pillage of churches, Charlemagne entered the 
country of the Saxons and repeatedly obliged them to 
sue for j)eace. Finding them always rebellious or 
perjured, he thought to intimidate them by a terrible 
chastisement. In a single day 4,500 of the most 
guilty were beheaded on the banks of the Aller (782). 
This was the signal for a desperate war which lasted 
till Witikind, the Saxon chief, consented to receive 
baptism (785). The partial revolts that still occur- 
red were 'at last suppressed by the banishment of 
several thousand of the inhabitants, and by the foun- 
dation of monasteries and bishoprics destined to 
throw the light of the Gospel upon the country. 

In the interval of his wars against the Saxons 



80 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

Charlemagne bore his victorious arms tlirougliout 
all his other frontiers. An expedition against the 
Saracens of Spain gave him all the territory as far as 
tlie Ebro, but, suddenly attacked on his return by the 
Gascons while marching through the defile of Eonce- 
valles, he lost a great number of warriors, among 
whom was the famous Eoland, so renowned in story 
for his bravery and wonderful adventures. 

Charlemagne had defeated the terrible Witikind, 
when he was informed of a great conspiracy which 
Tassillon, Duke of Bavaria, had formed against him, 
in concert with the Greeks, the Slavs, and the 
Avari (788). His measures were so well taken that 
all his enemies w^ere successively overthrown. Tas- 
sillon, abandoned by his own subjects, lost his duchy. 
The Greeks were defeated in Italy, and the Lombard 
duchy of Beneventum was compelled to pay tribute. 
After an expedition along the right bank of the 
Elbe the Slavs were forced to swear fealty. The 
Avari also, on the Thciss, sustained so many re- 
verses that they were almost annihilated, and lost 
(796) a vast entrenched camp where for several cen- 
turies they had accumulated the spoils taken from all 
the surrounding nations. 

Charlemagne Emperou (800) ; IIis Power. — 
Charlemagne, having united under his sway all the 
countries that had formed -the Empire of the West, 
was honored at Eome with the title of emperor. 
This was a suitable reward for his military exploits, 
his lofty wisdom, his zeal for the conversion of idola- 
ters, and the constant protection which he afforded 
the Holy See. He had just delivered Pope Leo III. 
from a cruel persecution. On Christmas Day, 800, 
while assisting at the divine office in the basilica 



Second Epoch. 81 

of St. Peter, Leo III., robed in his pontifical vest- 
ments and followed by his clergy, approached the 
pious monarch and placed the imperial crown upon 
his head. At the same moment the church re- 
sounded with prolonged acclamations: "Long live 
Charles Augustus, croAvned by God's own hand ! 
Long life and victory to the great and pacific Empe- 
ror of the Romans ! " Thus did the Western Empire 
receive a new birth in the person of Charlemagne, 
324 years after the deposition of Eomulus Augustu- 
lus. 

Charlemagne, then in his fifty-eighth year, extend- 
ed his dominion from the Ebro to the Oder and 
from Brittany to Southern Italy. He completely 
subdued the Slavs and the Danes, and closed Ger- 
many against them by securing to that country the 
double benefit of civilization and Christianity. He 
assembled a fleet of ships on the K"eustrian coast to 
keep off the l^orman pirates, wdio were already be- 
coming troublesome. He drove out the Saracens 
from Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles, and 
pursued them beyond the Ebro. This potent mon- 
arch, who was the first to organize all the west- 
ern races into a vast Christian society, was also the 
first to oppose a barrier to the invasion of pagan bar- 
barism from the North and Mussulman fanaticism 
from the South. 

The fame of the mighty emperor of the West had 
crossed the seas and penetrated to the Orient. Ca- 
liph Haruh-al-Rashid, then master of Jerusalem, 
conceived such respect and admiration for him that 
he sent him ambassadors laden with magnificent 
presents. The emperors of Constantinople sought 
his alliance ; and it was even hoped at one time that 



82 IIlSTOR Y OF THE MIDDLE xV GES. 

he would reunite the East tind AVest by espousing the 
Empress Irene. The king of the Asturias placed 
himself and all the Christians of Spain under his 
protection, and the kings of England attended his 
court less to admire him in the sjilendor of his power 
than to learn the art of governing their subjects. 

Government of Charlemagne. — Charlemagne 
had taken up his residence at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the 
centre of his vast empire, so that he might the more 
easily maintain order and peace. Enjoying absolute 
authority, he decided all important affairs, lie had, 
hoAvever, several ministers to assist him with their 
counsels : a grand almoner, for ecclesiastical affairs ; a 
count palatine, for civil affairs ; a chancellor, a sene- 
schal, a grand marshal of the palace, and a number of 
other officers, who composed the most brilliant and 
well-ordered court seen since the fall of tlic Roman 
Empire. In every country were dukes, counts, centu- 
rions, and tithing-men charged with the administra- 
tion. These rendered an account to two imperial 
commissioners, ordinarily a bishop and a lay lord, 
who made a visitation of the country four times a 
3'car, to hear complaints and reform abuses. Their 
rule of conduct was drawn up by the emperor him- 
self. Nothing relating to the interests of his sul)- 
jects was indifferent to him ; and though his solici- 
tude was given to the government of states so vast, 
he found time to observe, at stated hours, whether 
any disorder crept into his own household. 

Capitulars. — The laws of Charlemagne, and of 
the other Carlo vingian princes, are known by the 
name of capitulars, because the various regulations 
that compose them are divided into short chapters 
(capihilum). The capitulars were promulgated in 



Second Epoch. 83 

the general assemblies which Charlemagne convoked 
twice a year, in spring and antnmn ; the first being 
by far the more important. These assemblies were 
composed of bishops and lords, and deliberated on 
all alfairs of chnrch and state, nnder the direction 
of the emperor, who adopted the best counsels ; so 
that these assemblies, so dangerous under the ^' slug- 
gard " kings, exercised a most beneficial influence on 
the country. There are extant sixty-five of Charle- 
magne's capitulars, which enter into the minutest de- 
tails of the administration — as, how many domestic 
fowls are to be raised, trees planted, etc. Nothing is 
more instructive than to see this mighty legislator 
adapting and improving the peculiar laws of each 
nation, when he could so easily have set them entire- 
ly aside. 

He depended upon the efficacious influence of re- 
ligion to change the manners of the people. For 
this reason the greater j)art of his capitulars are ec- 
clesiastical laws, which prescribe obedience to bishops, 
payment of tithes to the clergy, and command a faith- 
ful observance of all the precepts of the Church. 

Charlemagjs'e a Patrok of Letters. — Charle- 
magne did not confine himself to militaly and civil 
science ; he also caused literature to be held in honor 
among his subjects. Assisted by the grammarian, 
Peter of Pisa, and the Anglo-Saxon monk, Alcuin, he 
conferred new splendor on the palace school, wdiich 
he converted 'into a sort of academy under the direc- 
tion of Alcuin. The emperoi was a member of this 
academy under the name of '^ David"; others were 
called " Pindar," '' Homer," " Augustine," etc. The 
imperial family and all the court were present at the 
lessons of the erudite Alcuin. Prom the court the love 



84 History of the Middle Ages. 

of learniiif^ spread rapidly tlirouglioiit the empire. 
Among the useful establishments due to the g-enius 
of Charlemagne were the numerous schools confided 
to bishops and abbots, under the superintendence 
of the palatine school director. In the minor schools, 
which were public, were taught grammar, arithmetic, 
psalmody, and all the elements of Christian doctrine. 
In the major schools the object of the teaching was 
sacred and profane science ; the first comprised the- 
ology, Holy Scripture, canon law, and the holy Fa- 
thers ; the second embraced what were known in 
mediaeval times as the seven liberal arts — viz., gram- 
mar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometr}', astro- 
nomy, and music. Charlemagne himself stimulated 
the ardor of the students and was fully competent to 
judge of their progress. He spoke Latin as fluently 
as his mother tongue, and thoroughly understood 
Greek. The seven liberal arts had no mysteries that 
he had not fathomed. Xaturally eloquent, he ex- 
pressed himself extemporaneously on all subjects with 
grace and ease. In a word, honoring the learned, lis 
was himself one of the most learned men of his age. 

Death of Charlemagne (814). — Charlemagne 
closed his glorious career, by a holy death at Aix- 
la-Chapelle, in the seventy-second year of his age. 
In a rich basilica, raised by his zeal, he was entombed, 
seated on a golden throne, having at his side a golden 
sword, in his hands and on his knees the Gospel, of 
the same metal, arrayed in his imperial robes and 
wearing the haircloth which he was accustomed to 
have on his person. *^ No one can express," says a 
contemporary, ^'what tears and lamentations his 
death called forth throughout the earth ; even the 
pagans bewailed him as the father of the world." As 



Second Epoch, 85 

rcmarka])le for liis yirtucs as liis genius, liis burning 
ze-al for tl^c faith and for the maintenance of ecclesias- 
tical discipline, his profound recollection during the 
holy mysteries, his singular yeneration for the Holy 
Scrij^tures, his rigorous fasts and other austerities, 
his strict justice, his paternal care of the poor, of 
widows, and orphans, finally, his good works of all 
kinds have merited for him m seycral churches the 
title of Saint, as his exploits have won for him eyery- 
where the surname of Great, 



CHAPTER 11. 
MOHAMMEDANISM— EMPIEE OF THE AEABS. 

Mohammed, pretending to found a new religion, inspires the 
Arabs with a spirit of proselytism and conquest. In their 
first attempt, under the elective caliphate, the Arabs wrest 
several provinces from the Eastern Empire and destroy the 
Persian dominion ; in a second, under the Ommiades, they 
penetrate to the interior of Asia, take all northern Africa, and 
advance through Spain to the south of Gaul. But the sword 
cf the Franks checks their conquests, and the rivalry of their 
leaders effects the division of their empire into two cali- 
phates, whjch are soon dismembered into many independent 
dynasties. 

See. 1. Mohammed (570-632) and the Koran ; Mo- 
hammed at Mecca (570-622); His pretendccl Mis- 
sion, 

In the mountainous country known as Hedjaz 
lies the city of Hedjaz (Mecca), which, even in the 
sixth century, was the most important town of Ara- 
bia. Favorably situated for commerce between Syria 
and Yemen (Arabia Pelix), it, moreoyer, boasted the 
possession of the temple of Kaaba, which was famous 



86 History of the Middle Ages. 

and YCiierated among the natives. According to the 
Arabs, u^.a temple was a gift from God himself to 
their forefathers, and had been the oratory of Abra- 
ham atid ismael. In one of its corners was the hlacl: 
stone whicii vas believed to have been the nucleus 
of the earth, and which, having been blackened by 
sin, would in the end recover its former dazzling 
whiteness. Round about were ranged three hundred 
^nd sixty idols belonging to the different tribes of 
Arabia, so that the Kaaba was a sort of national pan- 
theon. Every year numerous carayans of pilgrims 
yi sited Mecca to kiss the black stone seven times, 
and to run as many times around the sacred fane. 

The guardianship of the Kaaba belonged to the 
family of Hashem, the most illustrious of the tribe 
of the Koreishites, who claimed to be the descendants 
of Ismael. Of this family was born Mohammed in 
670. Orphaned at six years, with no other inheri- 
tance than an old female slave, several sheep, and five 
<jamcls, he was obliged to spend his youth in keeping 
Hocks and in carrying on business for the rich widow 
of a kinsman, called Khadijah. He found means to 
marry Khadijah, and so obtain rank among the rich- 
est and most influential citizens of Mecca. This did 
not satisfy his ambition ; he as^nred to become a 
prophet and the founder of a new religion. Having 
no ju'oof s in favor of his pretended mission, he worked 
upon the imagination of his countrymen by mysterious 
and j)rolonged retreats in a cave near Mecca. One 
night, it was said, while he Avas absorbed in profound 
reflection, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him and 
presented a book, saying, ''Take and read." "I 
cannot read," answers Mohammed. Thrice the same 
command elicits the same replv, and thrice the arch- 



Second Epoch, 87 

angel, seizing Mohammed by the hair, throws him to 
the earth. The third time Mohammed rises, and, to 
end the painful lesson, declares that he can read as 
well as the archangel himself. 

The new religion thus revealed was that of Islam, 
which imposed on its follower, or Mussulman, the 
blindest submission to the commands of God speak- 
ing by his prophet's mouth. To gain this ascen- 
dency Mohammed relied on the ardent and enthu- 
siastic character of the Arabians, their daring and 
warlike disposition. His first proselytes were his 
wife, his cousiif Ali, his father-in-law, Abu-Bekir, 
Othman, Omar, and others. At the end of three 
years (614:) he assembled at a great banquet all the 
members of his family, and announced to them the 
extraordinary mission which he had received from 
the archangel Gabriel. ^MYhich of you," said he, 
"■ will be my vizier [lieutenant] ? " "1,^^ replied Ali, 
then about fourteen years old. ^''Apostle of God, I 
will help thee ; if any one resist thee I will shatter his 
teeth, pluck out his eyes, cleave his body, and break 
his limbs." At these words Mohammed, transported 
with joy, named the young Ali his lieutenant. Several 
of the guests acknowledged Mohammed as the vicege- 
rent of Gqd, but the greater number turned him into 
ridicule and treated him as a madman. For eight 
years his enemies carried on a bitter war against him. 
The Koreishites were especially vindictive, as their 
interests were involved in the preservation of idolatry. 
They deprived the family of Hashem of the guardian- 
ship of the Kaaba, and confided it to the Ommiades, 
a rival family. Mohammed, daily exposed to injuries, 
and often threatened with death, at last fled from 
Mecca during the night. Ali assisted in the escape 



88 JIl STORY OF THE MiDDLE AgES. 

by wearing tlie prophet's green robe, and thus re- 
ceived the blow aimed by tlie adversaries of Ishim. 
Tlie prophet tied to the city of Yatreb, since called 
Mcdina-al-nabi (city of the prophet), or simply Me- 
dina (if /^e city). AVith this flight (hidjira) begins the 
liegira or era of the Mussulmans (622). 

Mohammed at Medi^n-a (G22-632) ; Subjection 

or Arabia and Beginnixg of the Holy War 

Mohammed, backed by the inhabitants of Medina 
and the companions of his flight, did not hesitate to 
employ force of arms to confirm his nev»^ religion. 
His first exploit was a deed of vengeance and robbery 
perpetrated on the inhabitants of Mecca. Having 
learned that a rich caravan, escorted by the Koreish- 
ites, was about to enter the valley of Beder, not far 
from Medina, he formed an ambuscade vritli 300 men. 
Falling unexpectedly upon his enemies, he killed 
sixty, put the others to flight, and secured consider- 
able booty, the fifth of which he reserved to himself, 
rourteen of his men fell under the blows of the 
Koreishites, and were honorably buried and revered 
as the first martyrs of Islamism. 

The Koreishites, breathing vengeance, soon re- 
taliated. Mohammed was vanquished in his turn, 
but rallied the courage of his partisans by alleging 
a revelation of the archangel Gabriel. The Jewish 
tribes in the vicinity, leagued with the Koreishites, 
besieged him in Medina. He dispersed them by ex- 
citing division among them, so that ho was enabled 
to obtain of the Koreishites a truce of ten years. 
The rupture of the truce afforded him a pretext for 
completing his triumph ; he entered Mecca at the 
head of 10,000 men and proceeded to the Kaaba. 
Striking the idols in succession with a wand, he ex- 



Secoxd Epoch. 89 

claimed: '^ Truth ai^pears ; lot lying vanish." The 
three hundred and sixty idols were dashed to pieces 
and all the citizens swore fidelity. 

Mohammed had announced that he would extend 
his empire still further. At one time, while engaged 
in digging in the trench that defended Medina, he 
struck some sjDarks from a rock. " The first of these 
sparks," cried he, ^'announces the subjection of Ye- 
men ; the second, the conquest of Syria and the West ; 
the third, the conquest of the East." Having subdued 
Mecca, he easily imposed Islamism on the greater 
part of the Arabians. Some, by an annual tribute, 
were allowed for a time to retain the Judaism or the 
corrupt Christianity to which they had been attached ; 
others yielded to force of arms. After Arabia, Mo- 
hammed wished to reduce the surrounding countries. 
Kliosroes, King of Persia, was the first potentate to 
wham he addressed an invitation to embrace Islam- 
ism. The epistle began thus : ^' In the name of the 
bountiful and merciful God, Mohammed, the envoy 
of God, to Khosroes, king of Persia, salutation." 
Khosroes, offended to see the name of an adventurer 
placed before his own, refused to read the letter and 
tore it in fragments. On hearing this Mohammed 
exclaimed : ^' Thus let his kingdom be rent ! " Hera- 
clius, Emperor of the East, and other princes, showed 
more regard for the message of the false prophet, but 
the Greeks of Syria massacred his envoy. He joro- 
claimed a holy vv^ar against them, and for the first 
time sent forth his. disciples from Arabia. It can be 
imagined what a hold fanaticism had on these war- 
riors, who had been promised victory in the name of 
Heaven. A cousin of the prophet bore the sacred 
banner, and, when both his hands had been cut off. 



90 History of the Middle Ages, 

he still raised it aloft with iiis mutilated arms, and 
received fifty-two wounds in defending it. 

Mohammed, clad in his green robe, advanced at the 
head of 30,000 men to the frontiers of Syria. Disap- 
pointed in not meeting the enemy he prepared himself 
for death. Followed by 114,000 Mussulmans, he hied 
to Mecca to perform his farewell pilgrimage (632). 
Having respectfully kissed the black stone seveii 
times, he made seven turns around the temple, three 
running, then four with measured pace ; this done, 
he immolated with liis own hand sixty-three camels, 
equalling the years of his age. Scarcely had he i-e- 
turned to Medina than he was reduced to the last 
extremity by an incurable malady from which he had 
suffered during four years. A Jewish woman, burn- 
ing to avenge the death of her brother, poisoned the 
mutton that v/as served up to the prophet. Moham- 
med detected the poison while eating. Questioning 
the woman, she answered : "If thou wert a prophet 
thou wouldst have escaped the danger ; if thou art 
not, the world will be rid of an impostor." The 
false prophet in his last days was tortured by remorse, 
and exposed his imposture by announcing his design 
of Avritmg a new Koran. "I desire," said he, "to 
write a book which will lead no one into error after 
my death." The scandalized Mussulmans who were 
present protested against this, and asked in wonder 
if they had not already a Koran sufficient for this life 
and the next. They fell into warm disputes over the 
affair, and the tumult became so great that Moham- 
med bluntly dismissed them all. "It is not proper," 
said he, " to quarrel in the presence of the envoy of 
God." Thenceforth he would have no other witness 
of his agony than his youngest v/ife, A3'esha, who be- 



Secoxd Epoch. 91 

traycd the confidence he phiced in her, by revealing 
later the swoons and terror of the apostle of Islam 
when he was about to appear at the tribunal of God. 

The Korai^-. — Doctrine of Islamism. — The 
Koran, or book, is the civil and religious code of the 
Mussulmans. It comprises one hundred and four- 
teen chapters, which are divided into verses. 
Hohammed composed them at different times and 
it long intervals, at moments when he pretend- 
ed to be in direct communication with Heaven. 
At such times he fell to the earth in frightful convul- 
sions, foaming and covered with sweat, as if seized 
with epilepsy or possessed by the devil. He gave 
cut that these w^ere ecstasies caused by the visits of 
tlie archangel Gabriel, who, unseen by others present, 
revealed the commands of God to the prophet. As 
Mohammed could neither read nor WTite, his disci- 
ple? gathered the v/ords as they fell from his mouth, 
and wrote them down upon parchment or upon palm 
leayes. Thus these verses, unconnected in meaning, 
v.Tre written and at first i^reserved betv»^een tv/o tab- 
lets, but the first caliph afterwards had them ar- 
ranged so as to make the Koran (Alcoran) — that 
is, tlte loolc. Besides its manifest incoherence, it 
contains numerous contradictions and scandalous 
passages, which the false prophet, in order to justify 
his own infamous conduct, affirmed were inspired by 
Heaven. Such was the infatuation of the Arabs that 
the lewdness of his manners was regarded by them as 
a divine privilege. 

The doctrine of the Koran is but a monstrous 
medley of truth and error borrowed by Mohammed 
from the Christians, the Jews, and the traditions 
of his country. He proclaims the unity of God, but 



92 HlSTURY OF THE MiDDLE AgES. 

denies the trinity of tlie divine Persons ; lie acknow- 
ledges as true prophets Adam, Xoe, Abraham, Moses, 
and our Lord Jesus Christ, but he blasphemously / 
denies the divinity of the Saviour of men, and pre- 
sumes to call himself the last and greatest of the 
prophets, so that his religion may be summed up in 
these terms: *^God is God, and Mohammed is his 
prophet." The Koran admits the existence of angels, 
the immortality of the soul, the rewards and 2:)unisl>- 
ments of the future life. But God can reward cr 
punish only such as are free to choose between good 
and evil ; Avliile the Koran in several places denies 
the free will of man b}- the doctrine of predestination, 
which renders him a mere automaton in the hands cf 
a tyrannical God. This evident contradiction betwem 
fatalism and free will would stagger any one but a 
Mussulman. Mohammed has also deserved the re- 
proach of promising his followers a sensual parad;se, 
where they will have rich garments, delightful gar- 
dens like those of Yemen, sumptuous banquets, and 
all those pleasures calculated to satisfy the cravings 
of the most carnal men. 

Precepts of the Korax. — The Koran contains 
a great number of precepts : 1. The ablutions, which 
are a preparation for prayer ; if water cannot be had, 
which often haj^pens in the desert, sand may be used. 
2. Prayer, which every Mussulman makes five times 
a day vrith his face towards Mecca, besides public 
prayer, said every Friday in the mosque or temple in 
commemoration of the prophet's flight. 3. The fast 
of Eamadan, or the ninth month, in remembrance of 
Mohammed's retreat on Mt. Herat ; every day of 
this month from sunrise to sunset the true believers 
abstain from food, baths, perfumes, and all other 



Second Epoch. 93 

pleasures, but usage permits them to make up 
at night for tlie privations of the day. 4. The pil- 
grimage to Mecca, which every Mussulman is bound 
to perform at least once in his lifetime. 

Mohammed also prescribes almsgiving and circum- 
cision, which he borrowed from the Jews. He pro- 
hibits the use of fermented liquors and certain meats 
— as pork and hare, and animals that have been 
strangled. But of all his precepts, the one to which 
he attached most importance was the holy war 
against the unbelievers. His new religion, founded 
in falsehood, required fanatical soldiers, bearing in 
one hand the sword and in the other the Koran. In 
sending them forth to the conquest of the world the 
false prophet imposed upon them the necessity of 
conquering. *^ Before you," he cried, *^is paradise, 
behind you the flames of hell." 

Sec. 2. The Elective Caliphate (632-661); Con- 
quests of the Arabs. 

The Foue Elective Caliphs. — Mohammed, on 
his death-bed, had forgotten to appoint a successor. 
He had only charged his father-in-law, Abu-Bekir, to 
take his place in reciting the public jorayers. This 
choice was sufficient to secure the votes in favor of 
Abu-Bekir (632-634), who took the unassuming title 
of caliph (vicar). He ruled during two years, and 
named as his successor the fierce Omar (634-644), who 
added to the title of caliph that of Emir-al-Mumenin 
(commande-r of the faithful). Such was his fanati- 
cism that, after seeing with his own eyes the corpse 
of Mohammed, he threatened to strike off the head 
of any one who would dare to say that the prophet 
was mortal. He signalized himself by the vigor of 



94 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

his administration and the number of his conquests. 
*^He took from the unbelievers," says an historian, 
*^3G,000 cities or castles, destroyed 4,000 churches, 
and founded or enlarged 1,400 mosques." This for- 
midable caliph, who may be considered joint founder 
of Islamism with Mohammed, was assassinated by a 
slave. Six of his friends, whom he had designated 
to choose his successor, elected Othman (044-G55), 
the former secretary of Mohammed. He was an old 
man of seventy, Avhose hand was too unsteady to 
direct a conquering nation. He could neither pre- 
vent nor suppress a revolt of several influential chiefs 
who attacked him in Medina. To escape their 
thrusts he shielded his breast with the Koran ; but 
this precaution was useless, and his death, followed 
by the election of Ali (655-G61), became the signal 
for prolonged and sanguinary anarchy. 

CoN"QrEST OF Syria axd the Sureouxdi^^g 
Countries (G32-638). — Abu-Bekir had scarcely as- 
sumed the title of caliph than he began the conquest 
of Syria. The city of Bosra, which was the key of 
the country, was betrayed, and the Arabs advanced 
to Damascus. Heraclius, Emperor of the East, sent 
against them an army of 70,000 men ; but it was 
destroyed, and the terrible Kaled, surnamcd the 
Sword of God, entered Damascus. The same day 
Omar took possession of the caliphate and declared 
his intention of vigorously prosecuting tlio war 
against the Greeks and degenerate Persians. In vain 
did Heraclius, in order to save Syria, put sixty thou- 
sand Christian Arabs at the head of a new army, 
saying, '^Diamond cuts diamond." Thrice the 
Moslems are compelled to yield ground, and thrice 
their armed wives in the rear drive them back to the 



Secoxd Epoch. 05 

combat. At last victory is theirs, and tlicy liastcn to 
inyest Jerusalem, the holiest city, iii their eyes, after 
Medina and Mecca. The besieged, driven to extre- 
mity after a four months' defence, promised to deli- 
ver \\\) the city to the caliph. Omar arrived from 
Medina mounted on a camel, affecting rustic simpli- 
city. He was, however, not the less inexorable to 
the Christians, whom he condemned to pay annual 
tribute and compelled to submit to humiliating con- 
ditions in the exercise of their religion (638). He 
ordered a mosque to be built on the site of Solomon's 
Temj^le, and, going to the Church of the Eesurrec- 
tion, sat down in the sanctuary. At this spectacle 
St. Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, burst 
into tears, and, turning to the G-reeks, exclaimed : 
^'Behold, indeed, the abomination of desolation in 
the holy place ! " 

The Emperor Heraclius had been so fortunate as 
to rescue the true cross from the sacrilegious fury of 
the infidels, but he soon learned that Palestine, 
Syria, and Mesopotamia had fallen into their power. 

Conquest of Egypt (639-640) akd Peesia (632- 
642). — Amru, charged to watch the frontiers of 
Egypt, eagerly desired to invade that country. On 
his asking leave to advance, the caliph replied : ^'If 
thou art yet in Syria, retrace thy steps ; if thou hast 
crossed the boundary, advance and trust in God and 
thy brethren." Amru, fearing a refusal, did not open 
the letter till he was in Egypt. The natives, known 
as Copts, had embraced the Eutychian heresy and de- 
tested the orthodox rule. With their aid the Arabs 
effected an easy conquest, their first obstacle being 
Alexandria, Avliich held out for four months. It is 
related that Omar, on being consulted by Amru about 



OG History of the Middle jIges. 

the great library at Alexandria, replied: ^'If the 
books agree with the Koran they are useless ; if they 
differ from it they are dangerous. Let them be 
burned." This order was so well obeyed that the 
precious manuscripts served, it is said, to warm the 
public baths for six months. 

The empire of the Persians, rent by civil war, op- 
posed but feeble resistance to Mussulman fanaticism. 
The victory of Kadesiah (636) opened to the inva- 
ders the navigation of the Euj)hrates ; that of Neha- 
vend, called the *^ victory of victories," secured them 
the rest of the country. To establish their sway they 
founded the city of Kufa, near the Euphrates. The 
young king, Jezdegerd, obliged to ask aid of the 
Chinese emperor, was slain on the banks of the Oxus 
(652) ; and in his person ceased the famous dynasty 
of the Sassanides, which had reigned over Persia four 
hundred and twenty-six years. 

ExD OF THE Elective Caliphate (661). — The 
fourth calij^h, Ali, was cousin and son-in-law to Mo- 
hammed, who had given him in marriage his favorite 
daughter, Eatima. As he joined to this advantage 
tried valor and devotion, he had many partisans, who 
had already proposed (632) to choose him as the 
successor of the prophet. Their triumph would have 
been secured by his election had it not been for the 
implacable hatred of Ayesha, Mohammed's widow. 
This artful woman easily gained over Amru, who had 
lost the government of Egypt, and Moaviah, who still 
held Syria. Moaviah, head of the powerful family of 
the Ommiadcs, distinguished himself by the conquest 
of Rhodes, Cy})rus, the Cyclades, and the coast as far 
as Cilicia. He gave the signal for civil war by tak- 
ing the title of Commander of the Faithful. Ho 



Second Epoch. 97 

marched against Ali, and fought ninety battles with 
him in one hundred days. On the CameVs Day 
Ayesha herself fought in person, mounted on a 
camel, and surrounded by seventy of the bravest 
warriors ; the latter all perished, and the imprudent 
Ayesha, having fallen into the hands of her mortal 
enemy, was condemned to end her days in inaction 
near her husband's tomb. "Wearied of so bloody a 
struggle, the two parties had met to choose umpires 
when three fanatical Mussulmans, arming themselves 
with poisoned daggers, swore to despatch the authors 
of the civil war. Moaviah received but a slight 
wound, while Amru escaped unharmed, as his secre- 
tary, who happened to sit in his place, received the 
deadly thrust. Ali himself fell mortally wounded 
(661). His partisans regard him as the sole le- 
gitimate caliph, and consider the first three caliphs 
as impostors ; they accept only the letter of the 
Koran, and are called Sheeites, or schismatics, by 
the orthodox. The orthodox, or Sunnites {sunna, 
tradition), maintain the legitimacy of the first three 
caliphs and oral tradition ; they prevail in Turkey, 
while the Sheeites are principally found in Persia and 
the other countries of Central Asia. 

Sec, 3, The Ommiades at Damascus (661-750). 

Moaviah ; Hereditary Caliphate. — After the 
assassination of Ali and the compulsory abdication of 
his son, Hassan, Moaviah caused himself to be pro- 
claimed caliph, through the agency of the capricious 
Ayesha and the fierce Amru. Moaviah was the son 
of Abu-Sofian, the persecutor of Mohammed. He 
supplanted the prophet's own children, and in con- 



98 History of the Middle Ages. 

sequence excited enmities against himself, wliieli he 
soiig-lit to avert by transferring the seat of the caliphate 
from Arabia to Syria, and by urging on the believers 
to new Avars against the infidels. Damascus became 
his capital ; the Ommiades, so called from an ances- 
tor of Moaviah, made the caliphate hereditary in their 
family, though not without opposition from the sons 
and partisans of Ali. In less than ninety years Da- 
mascus had fourteen caliphs of the Ommiades. 

Successes axd Reverses. — Notwithstandins: ob- 
stacles, reverses, and change of caliphs, war was prose- 
cuted in the East and in the West. In 670 a con- 
siderable fleet under Yesid, son of Moaviah, appeared 
before Cyzicus, and soon afterwards before Constan- 
tinople. Cyprus, Rhodes, and several provinces of 
Asia Minor were easily taken. For eight consecu- 
tive years the Moslems strove to take the capital of 
the Caesars. The Greek fire hurled amongst their 
fleets burned their ships and killed many of the crew. 
This Greek fire was thrown sometimes by means of 
long brass tubes, and sometimes in closed shells of 
iron or earthenv/are. Moaviah was obliged to sign a 
truce of thirty years w^ith Constantine Pogonatus, 
and even pledged himself to pay annual tribute (678). 
The conjuncture was critical. The haughty Akba, 
lieutenant of the caliph, had hastened to Africa with 
ten thousand Arabs ; he had founded near Carthage 
the city of Kairwan, and had advanced as far as the 
Atlantic Ocean. However, the victory of Wamba, 
King of the Visigoths, the resistance of the Berbers, 
and the arrival of a Greek army obliged the adven- 
turer to hasten back to EgyjDt. His successor, Zabeir, 
was not more fortunate. Moreover, Moaviah per- 
ceived death approaching ; he knew that the parti- 



Second Epoch, 99 

sans of All were active, and that liis rights were 
questioned even by his own family. 

In fact, after his death civil war put a stoj-) to 
conquest for twelve years ; Persia, Egypt, and Ara- 
bia-withdrew from the allegiance of the Ommiades 
and set up caliphs of their own. Torrents of blood 
had to be shed before restoring unity in the cali- 
phate. 

New Cojtquests ; J^oktherit Africa. — The fifth 
Ommiade cahph, Abdul-Melek (G85-705), the first 
Moslem prince who had coin stamped with his effigy, 
was finally enabled to resume the holy war. One 
of his lieutenants took Armenia and the regions of 
the Caucasus ; then, turning southward around the 
Caspian Sea, he darted upon the Turks and seized 
Samarcand, while another army penetrated as far as 
Hindostan. 

Into Africa, where the Greeks had fortified Car- 
thage, destroyed Kairwan, and armed the natives, 
the caliph sent Hassan, Governor of Egypt, at the 
head of forty thousand men. Kairwan was rebuilt ; 
Carthage, taken and retaken, was again captured, 
burned, and utterly destroyed. The famous city never 
rose again from its ruins (698). The Greeks were 
driven from Africa. Constantinople, then in a state of 
revolution, and left to tlie mercy of the Bulgarians, 
could send no aid. Hassan was, however, checked in 
his victorious march by the native Berbers, Numidians, 
and Mauritanians, led by Queen Cahina in defence of 
the country. Hassan effected his retreat upon Egypt, 
but Musa, his successor, crushed the natives, who 
had just killed Cahina ; he sold 300,000 as slaves, 
30,000 he incorporated with his troops, and the rest 
he forced to embrace Islamism or flee to the de- 



100 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

sort and mountains, Avlicre their descendants are now 
called Tuaregs and Kabyles, and outwardly conform 
to Mohammedanism. 

Conquest of Spain (711). — In Africa the city of 
Ceuta, under Count Julian, still remained in the 
l)uwer of the Visigoths of Spain, then ruled by Vitiza. 
This king had done nothing to hinder Musa, the con- 
queror of Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica, from seizing 
the Balearic Isles also ; his eyes were i3lucked out, and 
he was dethroned and replaced Ijy Roderick. The 
sons of the unlucky Vitiza arose against Roderick, and 
were assisted by their uncle, wjio was the archbishop of 
Toledo, and by Count Julian. The latter, it is said, 
had particular reasons for revenging himself on Rode- 
rick. Be that as it may, he offered Musa to deliver 
Ccuta up to him, and induced the lieutenant of the 
caliph to pass into Spain. Musa reconnoitred the 
countr}^, hastened his preparations, received the sanc- 
tion of Damascus, and embarked twenty-five thou- 
6'and men under Tarik, who had just directed the 
reconnoitring and given his name to the rock of 
Gibraltar (Gibel al Tarik). Landing on the 28th of 
April near Algesiras, the invaders overthrew Count 
Thcodemir, Governor of Andalusia, and encamped 
on the Guadalete, between Cadiz and Xeres. King 
Roderick, not expecting this invasion, hastened from 
Vasconia to Toledo, his capital, and called his subjects 
to arms. As soon as he had collected fifty thousand 
soldiers he marched against the enemy, whom he 
hoped either to exterminate or to cast into the sea. 

Battle of Xeres. — It was midsummer ; the heat, 
too great even for the Africans, prostrated the Goths. 
Roderick, as a mark of confidence in the sons of 
Vitiza, Eba and Sisebut, gave them the command of 



Second Erocii. 101 

tlie flanks, while lie held the centre of the army. 
The battle began on Monday, July 24, and raged for 
three days, without yictory seeming to incline either 
way. Then Count Julian during the night went to 
the Christian camp, and so aroused the resentment 
of Eba and Sisebut that the two princes with their 
troops passed over to the side of the enemy. Not- 
withstanding this treason, Eoderick still held out 
until Sunday, when he Avas slain, fighting, by Tarik 
himself. The fierce victor set out for Toledo to seize 
the royal treasury, to organize his conquest, and to 
rivet the fetters of a slavery that was to weigh upon 
Spain for eight centuries. 

Count Julian, by a just retribution, was deprived 
of his possessions by those whom he had served and 
cast into a dungeon, where he ended his days. Tarik 
did not receive much better treatment from Musa, 
who was envious of his success ; he was scourged for 
slightly departing from orders. Musa, desiring to 
take part in the conquest of Spain, sent his son, Abd- 
ul-Aziz, in one direction and Tarik in another, while 
he himself advanced towards Narbonne. Seized, 
however, by order of the caliph, and brought back 
to Damascus, he was publicly beaten with rods, fined, 
and exiled. Three years later his tormenters pre- 
sented him the head of his son, Abdul-Aziz, who had 
been massacred by his subjects in Spain, where he 
had ruled with clemency. The unhappy father died 
of a broken heart. 

Pelagius liq" THE AsTUKiAS. — Eollowing the 
example of Musa, the Moslem governors of Si3ain, to 
secure the i^ossession of the peninsula, endeavored to 
extend their conquests beyond the Pyrenees. But if 
they found Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine, always dis- 



lO'Z History of the Middle Ages. 

posed to close the passage of the mountains against 
them, they were not less harassed by an enemy they 
had left behind them in Spain. For the Christians 
who had lied to the Asturias had elected for their 
king the intrepid Pelagius (Pelayo), and he neglected 
no opportunity of chastising the invaders of his 
country. To end this resistance, the emir Alahor 
despatched 180,000 Saracens to the Asturias, but by 
the aid of Pelagius more than GO, 000 of these infi- 
dels were cast from the cliffs into the waters of the 
Deva, Avhere their boucs remained without burial. 
Pelagius was no longer uneasy ; he ruled all the 
northern coast ; in the interior he extended his con- 
quests as far as Leon. His successors greatly en- 
larged the little kingdom of the Asturias. 

Defeat of ABD-ER-EAHMAK*(Oct., 732). — Bolder 
than his predecessors, the emir Abd-er-Rahmari be- 
gan by cruelly punishing Munusa, one of his subjects, 
who had leagued with the Dake of Aquitaine ; then 
he invaded Southern Gaul with a powerful army. 
Eudes, who had been defeated several times, en- 
trenched himself in the rear of the Dordogne to 
defend its passage till he had been apprised of the 
arrival of Charles Martel on the Loire ; for Eudes 
had finally asked the aid of the new prince of the 
Franks. In the meantime Abd-er-Rahman advanced, 
sacking cities, pillaging the rural districts, massa- 
cring the inhabitants. Aries, Toulouse, Bordeaux, 
Poitiers w'ere in flames. Scarcely did the emir issue 
from the latter city than he perceived Charles Mar- 
tel and the Prankish battalions in position on a long 
ridge. The conflict w\as terrible ; the Saracens saw 
their most strenuous efforts unavailing before the 
cool intrepidity of the northern Avarriors. The arri- 



Second Epoch. 103 

val of Elides, who charged them in the rear, utterly 
dispirited them; thousands of corpses strewed the 
plain, and amongst the dead w\as found the body of 
Abd-er-Kahman. Night covered the rest, who aban- 
doned all their riches and all their booty to the con- 
querors. Christendom in the West was freed for a 
long while from the danger of Moslem invasion. 

New Check before Co:N^STANTii^oPLE (717). — 
The caliph Soliman had prepared a still more ter- 
rible attack against the capital of the Caesars. Dur- 
ing thirteen n;onths a considerable fleet and a power- 
ful land army besieged the city, notwithstanding the 
Greek fire, the Bulgarian auxiliaries of the empire, 
and the rigors of winter, to which the Arabs were 
not accustomed. They w^re forced, however, to 
raise the siege, after losing hundreds of vessels, thou- 
sands of men, and immense supplies. Thus did Leo 
the Isaurian reap the fruits of the well-organized 
defence of his predecessor, Anastasius II. For forty 
years Constantinople had been the bulwark of Chris- 
tianity in the East and the stumbling-block of the 
Ommiade caliphs. The sword of the Franks had 
driven them from the West. An intestine revolu- 
tion was about to decimate them. 

Fall of the Om^iiades. — The lineal descendants 
of Mohammed by Ali and Fatima constantly pressed 
their claim to the inheritance, usurped by Moaviah. 
Their green turbans, which distinguished them from 
the Ommiades, whose color w^as white, rendered evi- 
dent their superiority in numbers. The disesteem in 
wdiich they Avere held by all not of their party fa- 
vored the claims of a third family, descended from 
Abbas, uncle of Mohammed. These children of 
Abbas, or Abbassides, had chosen black for their 



104 History of the Middle Ages. 

turbans, their garments, and their two standards; 
they professed themselves tlie avengers of outraged 
rights, and took advantage of the errors, vices, and 
reverses of the Ommiades to win partisans for them- 
selves. The three brothers, Ibrahim, Abul-Abbas- 
Abdalluh, and Al-Mansur, heads of the Al)bassicles, 
soon appeared on the scene of action. Three caliphs 
having disappeared in one year, several provinces re- 
fused to acknowledge the fourth, Merwan 11. The 
Abbassides fomented the revolt. Ibrahim was poi- 
soned, but his brother, Abul-Abbas, declared himself 
caliph and pursued Merwan, Avho was slain on the 
banks of the Nile. He then made a friditful slauo:h- 
ter of the Ommiades, one of whom, Abd-er-Eahman, 
escaped (750). 

Sec. 4. The Abbassides ; Dismcmhermcnt of the 
Calipliate. 

The pirst Abbassides (750-842). — The new ca- 
liph, Abul-Abbas, is best known in history by the 
pernicious influence he allowed the Persian soldiers 
to exercise, and by the massacres which have given 
him the surname of As-Seffah, ''the Bloody." His 
death was the signal for a civil war between his 
uncle, who wished to succeed him, and his brother, 
Abu-Jaafar, surnamed Al-Mansur, '' the Victorious."' 
Abu-Jaafar was successful. Al-Mansur pacified the 
provinces and built Bagdad on a magnificent scale, 
and made it the seat of the caliphate. Harun-ar- 
Rasliid, grandson of Al-Mansur, was famous for his 
love of letters, his success in arms, and his relations 
with Charlemagne. Nevertheless, he proved himself 
ungrateful and cruel by capriciously exterminat- 
ing the family of the Barmecides, who had done 



Seco.xd Efocm, 105 

him great service. After Harun, his three sons, Al- 
Amiii Al-Maniuii, and Matassem, succeeded in turn 
to the caliphate ; the two last were admired for their 
munificence and feared for their energy. But with 
them expired the glory of the Abassides (842). The 
family con tinned to reside for four centuries at 
Bagdad, but only to see its richest provinces rav- 
aged by dismemberment, and even its spiritual power 
and its independence compromised by revolt and 
usurpation. 

FoUi^DATION" OF THE CALIPHATE OF COEDOYA 

(756). — The young Ommiade, Abd-er-Rahman, hav- 
ing escaped the sword of Abul- Abbas, was summoned 
to Spain by the friends of his family, who saluted 
him as their legitimate sovereign and aided him to 
repulse Yusef, lieutenant of the Abbassides. Abd-er- 
Eahman established a caliphate at Cordova and be- 
gan a magnificent mosque; he then applied himself 
to render his rule amiable even to Christians, and to 
make Spain flourishing. He had, however, to strug- 
gle against the kings of the Asturias, and the Franks, 
who had seized Narbonne and all Septimanca. He- 
sham- Abul-Walid, his son and successor, endeavored 
to recapture Xarbonne, but found it brilliantly de- 
fended by a son of Charlemagne, and was repulsed 
in spite of his prowess. The Frankish warriors even 
took Barcelona and all of Spain north of the Ebro. 
The caliphate lasted nearly three centuries, with 
very diverse alternations. 

Subsequent Dismembermext ; Fativiitec a:n"d 
Gazn-evides. — In 787 Edris, great-grandson of Ali, 
fled from Arabia to Barbary, or Mauritania, which he 
conquered, and where the Alide dynasty ruled dur- 
ing two hundred years. The son of Edris built Fez, 



106 History of the Middle Ages. 

tlie ctipitiil of the Edrisidcs. Three years after the 
flight of Edris a certain ibrahiiu-Abu-Abdallah, sou 
of Aglab, also came from Arabia to sectle at Kairwaii, 
whence he extended his dominion over Algiers, Tunis, 
and Tripoli. He seized upon Sardinia, and treason 
put his successors in possession of Sicily. The Agla- 
bides Avere dispossessed at the end of a century, not 
by the Abbassides, but by their more formidable 
rivals, the Fatimite caliphs. These latter were issue 
of Obeidallah, who claimed to be a descendant of 
Fatima, Mohammed's daughter, and openly took the 
title of caliph. Having subdued all Northern Africa, 
they took possession of Egypt and drove out all 
rivals. They built Cairo, which they made the 
centre of their caliphate, that soon embraced Arabia, 
Palestine, and Syria to the gates of Bagdad. 

In the East, Taher, general of the great and wise 
caliph Al-Mamun, declared himself master of Kho- 
rassan and Turkistan (820). But his descendants 
were speedily superseded by the Sofarides, and these 
again by the Samanides ; the Oriental countries were 
for ever lost to the Abbassides. The dynasty of the 
Buides ruled in Persia and oppressed the caliphs in 
Bagdad itself till the arrival of the Seljuk Turks, who 
treated them still worse. The Tartar sovereigns, 
taking the title of sultan, settled at Gazna, in the val- 
ley of the Indus, whence they subjected to their sway 
all the Moslems of Imaus and all the rajahs of 
Ilindostan. 

Sec. 5. Arabian Civilization. 

Rude Begin'XIN'GS. — Neither Mohammed nor the 
first caliphs appear to have given much attention to 
science, literature, and the arts. Their sole desire 



^ACOM) Efoch. . 107 

was to propagate the Konii), wliicli, with its fatalism 
aud blind faith, Avas most unfavorable to the free dis- 
cussions of pliilosophy, to the stirring appeals of elo- 
quence, to the creations of poesy, to the masterpieces 
of architecture, of sculpture, and of painting, even 
when it did not actually forbid them. Moreover, the 
conquerors themselves, coming from Arabia, knew no 
other social state than the family and the tribe ; they 
had no civil legislation, no commerce, no currency. 
For this reason these new sovereigns in the beginning 
left to Christians or Jews the civil, administrative, 
and judiciary functions, which require men of letters. 
They employed Greek secretaries to draw up their 
laws, to make known their will, and to correspond 
with foreign princes. 

IMPR0VE3IEKTS. — The exteut of their empire 
brought the Mussulmans into contact with different 
civilized nations, and they appropriated to themselves 
and transmitted from one end of the empire to the 
other several inventions which in later times have 
been attributed to them. Thus, paper made of cot- 
ton comes from China, the numerals called Arcibic 
from India, the costly textile fabrics either from India 
or Persia. The Arabs borrowed their art from Chris- 
tian Greeks; their science they owed to the ancient 
classic authors ; their scanty original productions they 
had in spite of Islamism rather than through its 
inspiration. 

In order to build mosques at Medina, Jerusalem, 
and Damascus the caliph Yezid had recourse to Con- 
stantinople for architects, and even Avrought metals. 
Abd-er-Rahman did the same when he wished to erect 
the famous mosque of Alcazar of Cordova; its col- 
umns had stood in former buildings. The Arabs 



1U8 History OF TUE Middle Ages. 

were skilful only as decorators, as their Arabesques 
testify. The Abbasside calii)hs, by causing Euclid, 
Archimedes, Aristotle, and Galen to be translated 
from Greek into Arabic, furnished the means of 
teaching mathematics, physics, natural history, and 
l^hilosophy; but these text-books, studied, exi^lained, 
and commented on, never received further develop- 
ment, even in the twelfth century, which was the 
time of those wise men of Islam, Avicenna (Ibn^ 
Sina), Abu-Hamid-Algazzali, Averrocs, and Tofail. 
Mohammedanism is essentially anti-jMlosophical. 

Specialties. — The two sciences of astronomy and 
medicine were the most in favor with the Arabs. 
The first was limited to the calculation of some 
tables, and soon degenerated into astrology ; the 
second, not being founded on anatomy and experi- 
ence, v/as a long while in vogue before the appear- 
ance of the famous observer Avenzoar (Ibn-Zohr). 
As to Arabian history, it was limited to an enumera- 
tion of facts mingled with absurd tales. Talcs are a 
specialty of the Arabians; they have left us the 
Tlioiisand and One Nights. Their poetry, exclu- 
sively lyric and descriptive, was of high merit before 
Mohammed's time ; the prophet prohibited it, as also 
painting and sculpture. Fortunately, several caliphs 
refused obedience, and introduced these fine arts, if 
not into the mosques, at least into their palaces. 

BAKBAias]M. — Even were the Arabs not open to the 
cliarge of having burned the Alexandrian library, 
still it can be affirmed that they destroyed beautiful 
cities, laid waste rich provinces, tyrannized over pol- 
ished nations, and hindered rather than advanced 
civilization. Nor did they promote even the material 
welfare of their co-religionists; sensual enjoyments 



Second Epoch. 109 

brutalized tliem ; and as for woman, Islamism does 
not mention lier. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE EASTEHN EMPIRE IN THE SEVENTH 
AND EIGHTH CENTURIES. 

After continual wars in the north against the Avari or the Bul- 
garians, in the south against the Persians or the Arabs, the 
empire is reduced to two-thirds its former size. Domestic 
troubles caused by two new heresies also contribute to its 
weakness. 

Sec. 1. The Heraclian Dynasty and Monothelism. 

DiSASTEOus Outset of IIeeaclius (610). — Pho- 
cas, the murderer of Maurice and liis family, had 
made himself hated for his cruelty and despised for 
his effeminacy. Heraclius, who was a son of the ex- 
arch of Africa, invited by the very son-in-law of Fho- 
cas, had no sooner anchored with his fleet in the Bos- 
phorus than the tyrant was brought to him in fetters. 
In reply to the violent reproaches of Heraclius, Pho- 
cas only said : ^'Govern better." These defiant 
words were a lesson to the new emperor which he 
should have remembered. The Avari, in conjunc- 
tion with the southern Slavs under the terrible 
Baian, menaced the empire at the north. The king 
of Persia, Khosroes IL, laid waste Syria, Palestine, 
Egypt, Asia Minor, and sacked Antioch, Alexandria, 
and Jerusalem, whence he bore away the true cross 
and thousands of captives. Constantinople was re- 
duced to the most frightful distress. For eight years 
Heraclius effected nothing against these enemies ; he 



110 History of the Middle Ages. 

even tliought of moving his court to Africa, but was 
. prevented by a popular outbreak. 

Period op Glory (020-030). — Being at last 
aroused from liis lethargy, he permitted the Croa- 
tians, fSlavonians, Servians, and other Slavs to set- 
tle in the country they still occupy. He raised a 
powerful army among those peoples, and carried the 
theatre of war into the heart of Persia. At the end 
of seven years of success Ileraclius completely over- 
came the Persian armies, destroyed their sacred cities, 
and even reached their capital, Ctesiphon, Avhere he 
learned of the flight, and soon afterwards of the vio- 
lent death, of the poAverful Khosrocs. His reward 
was a glorious treaty of peace with the new king of 
Persia, Siroes, and the restitution of the true cross, 
which was borne triumphantly to Jerusalem by the 
emperor in person. During this distant war, Con- 
stantinople nearly fell into the hands of Baian, khan 
of the Avari, who had come to the aid of a Persian 
army ; but the inhabitants defended themselves with 
such effect that the patrician Bonosius was able to 
repulse the Avari with great loss (020). On that day 
the Avari were dej^rived of their ascendency over 
the S]av3, Bulgarians, and others, and were com- 
pelled to canton themseh^es in Pannonia, where they 
remained until they were exterminated by Charle- 
magne. 

Errors axd Misfortunes of Heraclius; Moxo- 
TiiELiSM. — Success so vigorously gained seemed to 
presage a courageous resistance to Mussulman inva- 
sion ; but Heraclius fell back into an unaccountable 
torpor, and seemed at times to be wanting in courage. 
When Damascus had been surrendered and Jerusalem 
was threatened, the emperor went to bring the true 



Secoiw Epoch, 111 

cross in person to Constantinople ; but on reaching 
the Bosphorns he was frightened by the waves of that 
narrow strait. A bridge of boats, covered with eartli 
and strewn with branches, was thrown across to in- 
duce him to pass over. The defeat of his armies^ the 
taking of his great cities, and the loss of his Eastern 
provinces, now withdrawn for ever from the empire 
and from Christendom, could not spur him to take 
up arms. 

Some disguised Eutychians, not wishing to re- 
nounce their errors, and not daring openly to deny 
the tw^o natures in Jesus Christ our Saviour, yet ven- 
tured to deny his two wills, which was tantamount 
to overthrowing the dogma of the Eedemption. By 
their intrigues they had put three of their sect into 
the patriarchal sees of Alexandria, Antioch, and 
Constantinople. They even deceived Pope Honorius, 
whom St. Sophronius of Jerusalem, the only faith- 
ful patriarch, could not warn in time. The Emperor 
Heraclius fell into the snare, and published an edict 
favoring the heresy. This edict was the beginning of 
misfortune for him and his family, notwithstanding 
the disavowal that Pope John lY. compelled him to 
make. 

Family of Heraclius. — Heraclius died in March, 
641. In the following June his tomb was profaned 
by his eldest son, Constantine III., who opened it in 
search of a golden crown, after which he suddenly 
died. In August Hcracleonas, youngest son of He- 
raclins, had his nose cut off and was driven from the 
throne to give place to Constans II., his nephew. 
The latter was unable to oppose the Mussulmans, but 
strenuously upheld the Monotlielites, and issued an 
absurd edict forbidding all religious discussion. He 



112 History of the Middle Ages. 

banished Pope St. Martin I. from Eomc, and mur- 
dered his own brotlier, and his dreams Avere after 
wards troubled by the apparition of his victim hold- 
ing out a cup and crying out: ^'Drmk, brother, 
drink ! " To escape remorse or the hatred of his 
subjectj he set sail in his fleet, spat at Constantino- 
ple, it is said, and steered for Italy, under pretext of 
reconstructing the empire ; but, having vented his 
fury there for seven years, lie was killed while in the 
bath at SjTacuse {^(jS). Ills son, Constantine IV., 
surnamed Pogonatus (the Bearded), put down a 
usurper, suppressed a mutiny among the soldiers, 
and defended himself successfully for six years 
against the Arabs who were besieging his capital. 
He caused the Monothelite heresy to be condemned 
by the Sixth CEcumenical Council of Constantinople, 
assembled at his request under the dome of his own 
palace (G80). This council is called in trullo, from 
the Latin word for "dome. Unfortunately, his son did 
not at all resemble him. Justinian 11. , the last of 
his family, was worse than his grandfather. After a 
reign of ten years his nose was cut off and he was 
banished. He returned to Constantinople through 
the assistance of Tarbelis, King of the Bulgarians. 
Justinian Ixhinotmctus (nose-cut-off), as he was 
called, mutilated in turn and mercilessly slew his 
two competitors, and at last fell under the heads- 
man's axe (711). 

Justinian 11. is responsible for the abolition of 
ecclesiastical celibacy in the East. A new council in 
trullo, convoked by liim, besides countenancing other 
irregularities, relaxed the primitive discipline on this 
point, to the great detriment of apostolic liberty and 
the moral dignity of the Eastern priests. 



Second Epoch. 113 

Sec. 2, The Iconoclastic Isaurian Emperors; Acces- 

sloii of Leo the Isaurian (717). 

After the execution of Justinian II. three j^rinccs 
rapidly succeeded to the Byzantine throne, and of 
them Anastasius II. deserves lionorable mention on ac- 
count of his zeal and orthodoxy. Formerly a mercer 
in Isauria, he had risen through all the military 
grades, and had cut his way through the Arab bat- 
talions into Constantinople, where he was proclaimed 
emperor, and yaliantly sustained a siege of two years. 
His successor was Leo III., surnamed the Isaurian. 
Daring a reign of twenty-four years he caused the 
empire tabe respected by its enemies abroad, but en- 
kindled within a conflagration that made frightful 
ravages. 

Ico:n^oclastic Edict (736). — Several patriarchs 
of Constantinople had become heresiarchs, and seve- 
ral emperors had been the promoters of heresy. But 
Leo the Isaurian was both. It is said that, moved 
by the accusations of idolatry which the Mohamme- 
dans and Jews addressed to the Christians on account 
of the honor rendered to the images of our Lord, the 
Blessed Virgin, and the saints, Leo issued an edict 
which commanded, under heavy penalties, the re- 
moval of these images from churches and private 
houses ; hence the name iconoclast (image-breaker). 
Leo showed a profound ignorance of the religious sen- 
timent; and, worse than a Vandal, he extinguished 
the torch of Christian art. The patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, St. Germanus, protested against the 
edict; he was forced to abdicate. Learned men, 
monks, and numbers of the faithful resisted ; they 
Avere maltreated, exiled, or burnt. St. John Damas- 
cen, the subject and secretary of an Ommiade caliph. 



114 History of the Middle Ages. 

wrote an apology for the sacred images ; Leo cut oS 
his right band. Pope St. Gregory II. wrote a letter 
to the emperor as respectful in form as it was ener- 
getic and logical in substance ; the emperor stripped 
him of his possessions, and even wished the exarch 
to banish him ; but the Romans and other Italians 
still subjects of the empire fcided with the pope, in 
whom thenceforth they recognized the temporal 
sovereignty by breaking with their despotic princes. 

The Heirs of the Isaurian. — The wortby suc- 
cessor of Leo III. Avas his son, Constantiue V., sur- 
named Copronymus (sullied name), in allusion to his 
vile tastes and to an accident which occurred at his 
baptism. Powerless against the Arabs, who were rav- 
aging Asia Minor, against the Slavs invading Mace- 
donia, against the Bulgarians, who had advanced more 
than once, as far as Constantinople, against the Lom- 
bards, who, Under their king, Luitprand, conquered 
the exarchate of Ravenna, he was strong only against 
the sacred images, on which he continued to make war 
during his long reign with all the bnitality of his 
character. In a conciliabule he caused painting to 
be condemned, and St. John Damascen and all the 
orthodox Catholics to be anathematized. He died 
covered with ulcers. His bones were exhumed by 
one of his successors and burned in the place of 
the public executions. Leo IV. countenanced the 
heresy, as his father and grandfather had done, but 
with less violence. Constantine VI. was but ten 
years old. His mother, Irene, distinguished herself 
by several successful engagements with the Arabs and 
barbarians, but especially by restoring peace to the 
Church. Tarasius had accepted the patriarchate on 
condition that an oecumenical council should be con- 



Second Epoch, 115 

voked to re-establisli the veneration of sacred images. 
This council, held at Nice, was presided over by the 
legates of Pope Adrian I. The emperor and his 
mother subscribed to the decrees (787). 

Feesh Commotions. — On coming of age Constan- 
tino imprisoned his mother in a palace, and mutilated 
his four uncles, putting out the eyes of one and tear- 
ing out the tongues of the others. The ambitious 
Irene soon regained the upper hand. Her son having 
fallen into her hands, sbo had his eyes put out and 
then reigned alone. It was at this time thought that 
the East and the West might be reunited by the mar- 
riage of Charlemagne and Irene, but the latter was 
dethroned by Nicephorus, who revived every heresy, 
even the Manichean abominations, in which he took 
part. This emperor was crushed with all his army by 
the Bulgarians, whose king, Crum, made a cup of his 
skull. Michael L, son-in-law of Niccphorus, restored 
peace ; he would have wreaked vengeance upon the 
Bulgarians, but he was betrayed by Leo the Arme- 
nian, who succeeded him (813). The new emperor 
renewed the iconoclastic persecution with all the fury 
of the first Isaurian emperors. 

Such are the sad alternations that are presented to 
us during those two centuries by the empire of the 
Byzantine Caesars, wherein Christianity was left at 
the mercy of an absolute despotism and an unsettled 
succession. 



IIG History of the Middle Ages. 

CHAPTER IV. 
THE CHURCH AND CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION. 

Humbled in the East by Moliiuninedanism and liercsy, the 
Church is consoled in tiie West by the conversion of Ger- 
many and the thoroughly Christian civilization of the Carlo- 
vingian Empire. 

Social Influej^ce of the Pope an"d the Bishops. 
— AYliile the Mohammedcins were reaping the poison- 
ous fruits of their civilization, and the Byzantine 
princes Labored to deprive their own empire of its 
splendor, extent, and Christian life, the Catholic 
Church beheld the authority of her pontiffs growing 
in the West. x\.nd this authority was exerted in favor 
of evangelical preaching and piety, and for the firm 
establishing of true civilization. Temporal indepen- 
dence and the pomp of state were necessary to free 
the popes from Greek politics, and to enable them to 
treat with kings and to ensure the respect of the 
German races. Providence offered them these ad- 
vantages through the errors of the Greek C^sars, as 
well as the filial respect accorded him by the nations 
and princes of the West. Monothelite knavery and 
imperial cowardice in face of the crescent, as Avell as 
the encouragement given to the ravages of the Lom- 
bards in Italy by the fury of the iconoclasts, had es- 
tranged the Romans from Constantinople, for they 
saw that the pontiffs were their best defenders. The 
piety of the Anglo- Saxon kings, the Lombards' fear 
of the popes, and especially the generous support of 
the Prankish princes, ended in securing sovereign 
independence to the Papacy. Thenceforth and for 
a long while kings were consecrated, advised, and 



8ecoxd Epoch. 117 

warned by the popes, and the royal inflaence was 
used to spread the Gospel and to enlighten tlie 
nations. The Papacy entered on a new phase; a 
dance reveals the immense difference between the 
eight glorious pontilfs tliat illustrated the first cen- 
tury of temporal independence (715-810) and the 
twenty-four of the preceding century (605-715), who 
had been either the docile subjects or the victims of 
their masters, the emperors. 

The bishops grew in power as well as the popes. 
They became rich and powerful lords in the state. 
It is true that trouble arose in France because Charles 
Martel bestowed benefices and ecclesiastical titles 
upon his warriors in recompense for courage dis- 
played in face of the enemy ; but this abuse was soon 
reformed by Charlemagne, and it must be acknow- 
ledged that throughout the West the influence of the 
episcopate was salutary. 

The Spread of the Gospel i^q" Germany. — Al- 
thougli the Church had lost nearly all of her children 
in the southern countries by the wave of Moham- 
medanism that had passed over them, she yet found 
consolation in the north, which held out its hands to 
her. Irish monks completed 'the conversion of Scot- 
land, the Hebrides, and the Orkney Islands. Chief 
amongst these was St. Columba (Colom Cille), who 
established at lona, in the Hebrides, an abbey and 
college that grew to be a renowned seat of learn- 
ing, and was frequented by students from all parts of 
the Christian world. St. Columbanus, after having 
founded Luxeuil, near Besan9on, in France, labored 
zealously in evangelizing the Germans of the neigh- 
borhood. One of his disciples, St. Gall, penetrated 
the mountains of Helvetia^ and there founded a mon- 



118 History of the Middle Ages. 

astery which became the nucleus of the flourishing 
canton of St. Gall. He is known as the ^'Apostle of 
Switzerland." Another of these Irish monks, St. 
Kilian, preached the Gospel in Bavaria and Franco- 
nia, and suffered martyrdom for the faith. St. Al- 
bert, or Adalbert (Ailbe), abdicated his archiepiscopal 
see of Cashel, and along with St. Erhard (Er ard), by 
some stated to be his brother, planted the seeds of re- 
ligion at Eatisbon. Noble Franks left the court of 
their kings to evangelize these idolatrous countries. 
They worked in generous rivalry witli the Irish and 
the Anglo-Saxon monks. 

The Franks, SS. Emmeran and Corbinian, com- 
l^leted the conversion of Franconia and Bavaria, and 
the former even ]-cached the country of the Avari. 
SS. Eloi, Amand, and Yulfran converted Belgium 
and preached in Friesland, which, with its duke, 
Eadbod, opposed the Gospel as strenuously as Saxony 
under Witikind, but at last yielded to the heroic exer- 
tions of tlie holy Anglo-Saxon monks Wilfrid, Wil- 
librord, and Winfrid. Willibrord, who afterwards 
baptized Pepin the Short, founded the bishopric of 
Utrecht, and prepared the way for the conversion of 
Denmark by purchasing thirty young Danes, who 
were to become the apostles of their countrymen. 
"Winfrid, known as St. Boniface, spent forty years in 
founding schools, churches, and bishoprics in Fries- 
land, ITesse, Tliuringia, and even Sax6ny. He con- 
secrated Pepin the Short, and soon sealed with his 
blood the faith he had preached with so much suc- 
cess. Charlemagn6 alone was enabled to perfect the 
conversion of Germany by the subjection of the 
Saxons. Thus was the way opened to the apostles 
of Scandinavia and of the Slavonian races. 



Secoxd Epoch. 119 

The Cheistian Life of the Converted Bar- 
baria:n"S. — The principal mission of tlie Cliiircli is 
to develop the Christian life in her children. It is to 
her constant efforts that we are indebted for Western 
civilization. Sanctity shone from the throne as in 
the preceding epoch. Alphonse the Chaste, Ina of 
Wessex, Sigebert II., Bathilda, and many of the de- 
scendants of Blessed Pepin of Landen were models 
of virtue. Everywhere monasteries were multiplied. 
They taught labor and literature, trained and sent 
out apostles, and served as a retreat for kings. Four 
Anglo-Saxon kings became monks, as also Carloman, 
brother of King Pepin, and Eatchis, King of the 
Lombards. Many princesses imitated the pious 
queen, St. Bathilda, who founded the monastery of 
Chelles and withdrew to it for the remainder of her 
days. These noble examples were certainly not with- 
out influence. 

The clergy gained much by the rapid extension of 
the regulations drawn up by St. Chrodegang, Bishop 
of Metz. The capitulars of Charlemagne, the nu- 
merous councils, as well as the cathedral and ab- 
bey schools contributed to afford the people whole- 
some examples, wise teaching, and general enlight- 
enment. 

Sciences, Letters, and Arts. — In the East the 
seventh century produced scarcely anything save the 
writings of the Patriarch St. Sophronius, of Jerusa- 
lem, and the Abbot St. Maximus, of Constantinople, 
against the Monothelites. But in the seventh cen- 
tury the violence of the iconoclasts brouglit about a 
reaction and won for the Church the letters of St. 
Theodorus Studita, the controversies of the Patriarch 
St. Nicephorus, the historical writings of St. Theo- 



120 History of the Middle Ages. 

l^hanes, and the t;i'catiscs of the erudite doctor St. 
John Damascen. 

In the AYest, Spain and France, in tlie seventh 
century, produced tlie leafned works of St. Isidore 
and the writings of SS. lldefonsus, Eloi, and Ouen : 
but for nearly a hundred years afterwards these 
countries contributed nothing to letters, either sacred 
or profane. lu Spain this was owing to the Arabian 
invasion, and in France, no doubt, to the decline of 
the Merovingian kings, and particularly to the pos- 
session of nearly all the episcopal sees by the unlet- 
tered heroes of Charles Martel's army. Italy, and 
even Rome, seemed to nndergo a like eclipse from the 
death of St. Leo II. (G83) to St. Gregory II. (715). 
On the other hand, England, dnring the same time^ 
beheld the erndite Greek monk Theodore, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, and his friend, the Abbot 
Adrian, founding schools of theology, mathematics, 
and the classical languages, among whose pupils 
were Benedict Biscop, Venerable "Bode, the wisest 
man of his time, Egbert of York, and Alcuin, who, 
supported by Charlemagne, made literature, science, 
and the liberal arts flourish in France. 

The names of Charlemagne and Alcuin are insepa- 
rable from those of Peter of Pisa, Paul AVarnefried, 
Leidrode, Theodulph, Eginard, and so many other 
illustrious men who graced the Palatine Academy 
before contributing to the erection of thousands of 
schools tlipoughout the length and breadth of the 
vast empire of the Franks. In these schools was 
taught first the triviitm (grammar, dialectics, and 
rhetoric) and then the quadrivium (arithmetic, geo- 
metry, astronomy, and music). Together these con- 
stituted the ** seven liberal arts." This intellectual 



Second Epoch. 121 

revival survived the Carlovingian monarchy, and was 
one of Charlemagne's most glorious titles to the grati- 
tude of posterity. 

New TiiiUMPii or the- Church. — At the close of 
this period we have reason again to see the working 
of God's providence in the government of the world. 
The Eastern Empire had not felt the scourges of the 
preceding epoch, but it had, along with the southern 
nations, been guilty of heresies, impieties, and abomi- 
nable crimes, and along with those countries it under- 
went the just chastisement of Heaven. Mohamme- 
danism was the instrument of God's justice. 

But while the Church lost on one hand she gained 
on the other. The sturdy tribes of Germany super- 
seded the effeminate people of the East ; an empire 
wholly Christian arose amid the ruins of the despot- 
ism of the Csesars, and the Eoman Pontiffs vvere 
secured in the full possession of their spiritual au- 
thority, which is the helm of the Church and the 
unerring guide of civilization. 



THIRD EPOCH (814-1073), 

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE 
ACCESSION OF ST. GREGORY VII.— 261 YEARS. 

The third epoch shows us the formation of feudal Europe. The 
vast empire of Charlemagne disappears to give place to the 
feudal system. This transformation coincides with the in- 
vasion of fresh hordes of barbarians. The German kings, 
claiming to be the heirs of Charlemagne, obtain the imperial 
dignity and the preponderance in Europe. In the south the 
empire of the Arabs is dismembered as completely as that 
of the Carlo vingians ; the Mussulmans recede before the 
Christians of Spain, but successfully maintain the struggle 
with the Greeks, who separate from the Catholic Church. 
The Church is consoled by the conversion of the Slavs and 
Scandinavians. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE CARLOVINGIAN EMPIEE AND THE FETT- 
DAL SYSTEM. 

The Carlovingian Empire is broken up first into three, then 
into seven iangdoms, which in turn undergo a more com- 
plete dismemberment in consequence of the feudal system. 

Sec. 1. The two Dismemberments of the Carlovin- 
gian Empire (843 and 888). 

Weakitess of Louis the Debok^naibe (Good- 
katured) (814-840). — The unity- of that empire 
which Charlemagne had organized and maintained, 
was destroyed under his feeble successors, by the as- 
saults of a powerful aristocracy and by the inroads 
of fresh hordes of barbarians. Besides, an inevita- 



Third Epoch. 123 

ble cause of dissolution was the antipathy of so 
many races of diverse languages, manners, laws, and 
interests."'' 

As soon as they found themselves no longer un- 
der the strong hand that had ruled them so well, 
the greater part revolted against the new emperor. 
Louis the Debonnaire, the better to ensure the in- 
tegrity of the empire, made the first division among 
his three sons, in the assembly of Aix-la-Chapelle 
(817). Lothaire, the eldest, received Italy, with 
the expectancy of the imperial crown ; Pepin and 
Louis got only Aquitaine and Bavaria. Bernard, 
the grandson of Charlemagne, and already king of 
Italy, protested against a division so injurious to 
himself, but he was compelled to ask forgiveness 
of Louis the Debonnaire, who ordered his eyes to 
be put out. The young prince died in consequence 
of his cruel suSerings. To stifle his remorse, the 

• The limits of Charlemag:ne's empire were, on the north, the North Sea, 
the river Eider, and the Baltic Sea; on the east the Elbe, the Saale, the 
Bohemian mountains, the Thciss, the Save, the Bosna, and the Narenta ; on 
the south the Adriatic Sea, the Pescara, the Garigliano, the Mediterranean 
Sea, the Lower Ebro, and the Western Pyrenees ; on the west the Atlantic 
Ocean. The frontiers were held by tributary peoples : on the east, as far as 
the Oder, by the Slavs (Obotrites, Wiltzes, Sorabians, Czechs, Moravians); 
on the south by the duchy of Beneventum and by the Basques (Western 
Pyrenees); on the east by the Bretons (Armorica). Charlemagne held the 
mastery for a few years of the Balearic Isles, Corsica, and the island of Sar- 
dinia. 

Charlemagne preserved the ancient division into duchies, counties, vis- 
counties, cantons, and tithings ; but at the assembly of Thionville (806) he 
esstablished a more general division by forming the three kingdoms of 
France, Italy, and Aquitaine for his three sons, Charles, Pepin, and Louis. 
The kingdom of France comprised the eight provinces of N eustria, Bur- 
gundy, Austrasia, Saxony, Friesland, Thuringia, Bavaria, and Germany ; 
the kingdom of Italy included Lombardy, the marquisate of Treviso, the 
marquisate of Carinthia, or Friuli, and the administration of the possessions 
of the Church ; the kingdom of Aquitaine embraced Aquitaine, the duchy 
and marquisate of Gascony, the marquisate of Spain (Barcelona) and Sep- 
timanca. 



124 History of the Middle Ages. 

em2")eroi* imposed a public penance upon himself in 
the assembly of Attigny. This voluntary humil- 
iation would not have compromised his authority 
had he been lirm enough to resist the suggestions 
of his second wife, the ambitious Judith of Bavaria. 
But a son by her, called Charles, later surnamed the 
Bald, received an appanage so formed as to be in- 
jurious to his brothers. The latter took up arms 
to maintain the division that had been made at Aix- 
la-Chapelle, and eventually shut up their father in 
a monastery (830). Their disagreement soon en- 
abled the emperor to reascend the throne ; but he 
provoked a second revolt by withdrawing Aquitaine 
from Pepin to bestow it upon his favorite son. 
Abandoned by his army and falling into the hands 
of Lothaire, he was solemnly deposed and subjected 
to public degradation (833). Still the rebels were 
unable to agree, and their disgraceful treatment of 
their father excited general indignation. Louis 
the Debonnaire, a second time restored to the 
throne, undertook to confer new advantages upon 
his son Charles, and thus caused another revolt, in 
the midst of which the unfortunate prince died. 
He lacked no virtue but firmness, nor any science 
but that of government. He confirmed the autono- 
my of the republic of Andorra, founded by Charle- 
magne (790). This republic of the Middle Ages 
still exists and is governed by a Catholic bishop. 

Battle of Foxtaket (841) and Treaty of 
Verduk (843). — Three sons armed against their 
father and sovereign had just disturbed the em- 
pire of Charlemagne : three brothers divided among 
themselves were about to inflict another blow upon 
ita and to cause its first dismemberment. Lothaire, 



Third Epoch. 125 

having taken the title of emperor, was supported 
by his nephew, Pepin of Aqiiitaine, in his project 
of becoming master of all the empire. Charles 
and Louis combined their forces for the defence of 
their possessions. Having advanced to Fontanet, 
near Auxerre, they found themselves obliged, 
though against their will, to settle .the quarrel by 
force of arms. Victory declared in their favor, 
and they confirmed their alliance by solemn oaths 
in an interview at Strassburg. The oath of Louis, 
couched in Eomance, is the earliest monument of 
the French language.* Lothaire, at last realizing 
his weakness, accepted propositions of peace. The 
three brothers, in their conference at Verdun, di- 
vided their patrimony. Lothaire, already acknoAV- 
ledged emperor, obtained together with Italy all 
the territory bounded on the east by the Alps 
and the Rhine, and on the west by the Rhone, 
Saone, Meuse, and the Scheldt ; Charles received 
Western Gaul, and Louis, Germany. Thus out 
of the empire arose the three distinct nations 
of Italy, France, and Germany. 

Weakkess of Charles the Bald (840-877) 
AKD OF HIS Successors ; Dismemberment of 
THE Empire into Seven Kingdoms (888). — 
Charles never possessed all Western Gaul ; he was 

* " Pro Deo amur, et pro Christian poblo, et nostro commun s-ralvamcnto, 
dist di in avant, in quant Dcus savir et, podir me dunat, si salvare io cist 
mcon f radre Carlo, et in adjudha, et In caduna cosa, si cum om per dreit son 
fradre salvar dist, in o quid in mi altre si fazet. Et ad Ludlier nul plain 
nunquam prindrai, qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre Carlo in damno sit 'V 
For the love of God and the Christian people, and our common salvation, 
from this day forth, so far as God grants me to know and to be able, I pro- 
mise support to my brother Charles, and help, and in every particular, as it 
is right to support a brother, as long as he does the like for me. And I will 
never make any agreement with Lothaire, willingly, which may be an injury 
to my brother Charles. 



120 Hi STORY OF THE MiDDLE AGES, 

worsted by Nomenoe, who had taken the title of 
king- of Brittany, and who transmitted it to his 
son Avith all the country he had occupied as far as 
the Mayennc. Pepin II., King of Aquitaine, was 
abandoned by his subjects because he had made 
an alliance with the Normans and Saracens ; but 
this rich province remained in the power of the 
count of Toulouse and other independent lords. 
The ZsTormans continued to ravage the coasts, 
and even penetrated to Paris ; Charles met 
them with gold instead of steel, which was 
only an additional bait to their cupidity. This 
monarch, who was losing his own dominions, 
employed much of his time in the conquest 
of neighboring states. He picked a quarrel 
with his ncphcAvs, and seized (8G9) a part of the 
kingdom of Lothaire II., which comprised, under 
the name of Lotharingia, or Lorraine, the countries 
situated between the Saone and the Scheldt, the 
Jura and the Ehine. On the death of Louis II. 
(875), brother of Lothaire II., Charles obtained 
the title of emperor, but he strove in vain to de- 
S2")oil the three sons of his brother, Louis the Ger- 
man (87G). AVhen at length he was summoned 
to Italy to encounter the Saracens, he issued the 
edict of Kiersy-sur-Oise (877), in the hope of win- 
ning the lords over to his side, but he was betray- 
ed and perished miserably in a hut at the foot of 
Mt. Cenis. 

Louis II., the Stammerer (le Begue), still more 
inetficient than his father, Charles, soon left the 
throne to his two sons, Louis III. and Carloman. 
These two princes, notwithstanding their cour- 
age and ability, failed in their attacks against Bo- 



Third Epoch. 127 

son, who luid been proclaimed king of Provence 
(879). At their death there remained two legiti- 
mate representatives of the Carlovingian dynasty: 
their brother, Charles the Simple, still a minor, 
and Charles of Suabia, snrnamed the Fat, a son of 
Louis the German. The Suabian was chosen (884) 
because he was the only one able to govern by him- 
self ', he already bore the title of emperor, and 
was master of most of the countries that had form- 
ed the Carlovingian Empire. But he had not the 
ability to administer so extensive a dominion. 
The ]S"ormans, exasperated by the assassination of 
one of their chiefs, laid siege to Paris (886). The 
city was valiantly defended for eleven months by 
its bishop, Gozlin, and by Eudes, Duke of France, 
when Charles the Fat appeared at the head of a 
considerable army. Instead of attacking the 131- 
rates, he induced them to retire by paying them 
seven hundred pounds weight of silver and gave 
them leave to ravage Burgundy. 

Cowardice so unbecoming an emperor excited 
the contempt of all minds, whether French, Italians, 
or Germans, and Charles the Fat was deposed at 
the diet of Tribur (887). He died soon after of 
poverty and gTief (888). The empire of Charle- 
magne, after having been successively weakened 
by his son, divided amongst his grandsons, and 
left a prey to barbarians, was at last made into 
seven kingdoms : 1, the kingdom of Germany, 
under Arnulf of Carinthia, a natural son of Carlo- 
man of Bavaria and nephew of Charles the Fat ; 
2, the kingdom of France, under Eudes, Duke of 
France and Count of Paris ; 3, the kingdom of 
Italy, under Guy, Duke of Spoleto, whose rival 



128 HiSTOKY OF THE JIlDJJLE AGES, 

was Bereuger, Duke of Friuli ; 4, the kingdom 
of Proveuce, or Cisjuraii JJurgundy, under Louis 
the Blind, a, son of Boson ; o, tlie kingdom of 
Triinsjuran Burgundy, under liudolph AYelf ; 6, 
the kingdom of Lorraine, under Zwentibold, a 
natural son of Arnulf ; 7, the kingdom of 
Xavarre, under Fortunus the Monk. 

These kingdoms were subdivided into a mul- 
titude of almost independent fiefs The feudal 
system replaced the unity of the emj)ire. 

Sec. 2. Feudalism in Europe. 

Origin of Feudalism. — Kings and barbarian 
chiefs, on settling within the Roman Empire, divid- 
ed their territory into freeholds exempt from dues. 
They were more generous in rcv/arding their re- 
tainers or followers than formerly in Germany. 
Then a war-horse or a piece of armor was the re- 
compense of fidelity and courage ; but now lands 
were given them, at first called 'benefices, but after 
the ninth century known as fiefs, or fees. These 
grants were revocable at will, and imposed mili- 
tary service and dues in kind or in money upon 
the holder ; but the lords vrho had received bene- 
fices endeavored to secure perpetual ownership 
in them, free from military service or other dues. 

This assumption of independence on the part of 
the principal chiefs was begun under the last Mero- 
vingians, but was only consummated under the fee- 
ble and improvident successors of Charlemagne. 
Charles the Bald favored it by the edict of Mersen, 
near Aix-la-Chapelle (847), and it was comiiletely 
assured by the famous edict of Kiersy-sur-Oise (877) 
The edict of Mersen authorized freeholders, who 



Third Epoch. 129 

until then had been subject directly to the crown, to 
choose protectors able to defend them during the 
anarchy caused by civil war and the invasions of the 
Normans. The freeholders commended themselves 
to the most powerful lords — that is, put themselves 
in their service in exchange for protection. This 
usage (in commendam) transformed nearly all the 
freeholds into real fiefs, or estates held of superiors 
on condition of military service. In the assembly of 
Kiersy-sur-Oise Charles the Bald went stiU further. 
To secure the assistance of the barons in his ap- 
proaching expedition into Italy, he was imprudent 
enough to grant them the hereditary ownership not 
only of the fiefs, but also of the government and 
public functions, which until then they had held 
simi^ly as temporary commissions. This authorized 
all the usurpations of the barons, and rendered them 
at once great proprietors and sovereigns at the ex- 
pense of the crown. In their domains they assumed 
all the prerogatives of sovereignty, such as making 
war, administering justice, coining money, levying 
imposts, and, in fact, they enjoyed all the rights 
that in our days belong exclusively to the govern- 
ment. 

This accounts for the utter insignificance of the 
last Oarlovingians, who had no attendants, authority, 
or estate outside the little county of Laon. The 
entire kingdom was divided into fiefs, each fief form- 
ing a petty state, governed by* its lord, who was 
master both of the soil and the inhabitants. 

Homage, Fealty, ain^d Investiture. — The feu- 
dal contract, which of its nature was free and per- 
sonal, Avas not supposed to exist until after the per- 
formance of three ceremonies, homage, fealty, and 



130 History of the Middle Ages, 

investiture. First the vassal paid homage — that is, 
he clecUired himself to be his lord's man {hommc) in 
return for tlie land which he received. Homage was 
liege or simple. Liege homage was paid Ijy kneeling 
unarmed and without spurs, and at the same time 
placing the hands within the lord's while repeating 
the customary formula. The liege man was bound 
to render his lord personal military service. In simple 
homage the vassal had only to remain standing while 
the chancellor pronounced the formula, to which he 
signified his assent. A kiss ordinarily closed the 
ceremony. The vassal then pledged his fealty by 
laying his hand upon the Gospels and taking an oath 
faithfully to discharge all his duties. Finally, his 
lord, who was now his suzerain, gave him the inves- 
titure by handing him a branch of a tree, a clod of 
earth, or anything which might attest that he en- 
tered on the possession of his fief. The lord had the 
absolute ownership of the land, and was said to hold 
it in fee simple ; the vassal had only a conditional 
right, and was said to hold a limited fee. 

Feudal Rights. — The lord, being sovereign of his 
domain, required of his vassals military service, and 
cited them before his tribunal to administer justice and 
to collect various imposts, paid sometimes in money, 
but oftener in kind. These rights were doubtless of 
great extent, but they were not arbitrary. The vas- 
sal was bound only to such as custom had estab- 
lished and which he had freely accei")ted. Even 
when he had to furnish extraordinary subsidies it 
was only in foreseen cases that had been provided 
for in advance ; for example, when the suzerain be- 
came prisoner of Vv^ar, gave his daughter in marriage, 
J^nighted his son, or set out for the Holy Land. 



Third Epoch. 131 

And it is just to add that feudal dues were light, 
and that many were paid by a simple expression o± 
good-humor and of gayety. Sometimes an egg w^as 
brought in great state, bound to a wagon drawn by 
four oxen ; at other times the obligation was dis- 
charged by a hatful of flowers, a song, a dance, or a 
harlequin costume. The state, which now exercises 
all the feudal rights of suzerainty, is not so accom- 
modating with its taxpayers. 

The Feudal Castle. — The lord's dwelling was a 
strong castle in the centre of his domains, sometimes 
on an eminence, but more often on the side of a 
hill. It was less a palace than a fortress, surrounded 
by a ditch or moat filled with water and flanked 
with massive towers, communicating with one an- 
other by means of the wall forming the ranij^arts. 
In the interior stood the donjon, or keep, which over- 
looked the other towers and the surrounding places. 
Posted upon the platform, the signal-man sounded 
the alarm with the bell or horn. Immediately the 
villeins, or tenants, scattered throughout the villages 
of the fief hastened to the fortress for refuge, and 
access was then cut off by raising the drawbridge 
and lowering the heavy iron portculUs. As the enemy 
approached the moats, a shower of darts was dis- 
cliarged upon him either through the loopholes that 
pierced the v/alls or from the summit of the towers, 
where the defenders sheltered themselves behind the 
battlements. If the enemy succeeded in reaching 
the foot of the ramparts, hot water and all kinds of 
projectiles were cast upon them from the machico- 
lations, which were a projection of the parapet wall 
supported by corbels or brackets, and having aper-- 
tures on the lower side. But ff he trained the first 



132 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

enclosure tlie defenders entrenched themselves in the 
keep ; if they could not hold this, their last resource 
was to escape by the immense underground tunnels 
which extended afar into the plain or the forest. 

"When a traveller presented himself at tlie castle 
gate the drawbridge was lowered for him, and he 
was received and entertained witli the most generous 
hospitality. In the evening they gathered around 
the wayfarer in the great hall to hear the news of 
distant lands. If he was a pilgrim he might add 
pious tales ; and if a bard, he sang the lofty exploits 
of Charlemagne and his paladins. 

Feudal Hierarchy. — It sometimes happened 
that the lord, safe behind the battlemented walls of 
his castle, thought himself independent of all but 
God and his sword. But the hierarchy, or gi'adation 
of dignities, became more regular as the feudal 
system was better developed. Highest of all was the 
king, who was suzerain of all the fiefs of his king- 
dom ; then came dukes, marquises or counts of 
the frontier {metric, mai'clies), counts or earls, vis- 
counts, barons or strong men, finally knights, who 
were divided into three distinct classes. The knights- 
banneret could carry a square banner and have fifty 
followers, with a particular war-cry. The knights 
of the hauberk, holders of an estate in fee-simple, 
served in person with two or three pages, and wore a 
hauberk, which was a shirt of woven steel rings de- 
scending to the middle of the body. The knights- 
bachelor had no following, and bore a pennant or 
banner terminating in two points. 

Besides the feudal hierarchy there were the classes 
of commoners, comprising burgesses, or citizens, who 
dwelt in cities and lived by their industry ; villeins, 



' Third Epoch. 133 

or peascants, avIio cultivated the lands of their lord 
and were required to ])\\^j■ only a fixed rent ; finally, 
the serfs, who were taxable, and forced to labor in the 
service of their lord, but could be neither sold nor 
torn from their home and family. The Christian 
religion had thus won them rights unknown to the 
slaves of antiquity, who were absolutely at the mercy 
of their masters' caprice. 

The Church did not escape the encroachments of 
feudalism. The greater part of her domains were 
transformed into fiefs. The bishops and abbots be- 
came suzerains, dukes, counts, or barons, having in 
their service vassals bound to all the duties resulting 
from homage. It often happened that the parish 
j)riests surrendered their perquisites as dues of a 
fief. 

Pei^'CIPAL Piefs op Eueope. — In the tenth cen- 
tury there were in France seven principal leading 
fiefs, conferring on their possessors the title of grand 
feudatories, peers, or immediate vassals of the king : 
1, the duchy of Frafice ; 2, the duchy of Normandy ; 
3, the duchy of Burgundy ; 4, the duchy of Aqui- 
taine ; 5, the county of Toulouse ; 6, the county of 
Flanders ; 7, the county of Yermandois. Each of 
these principal fiefs comprised a great number of 
secondary fiefs, the holders of which were known as 
rear vassals, or vavassors. 

The duke of France having become king in 987, 
there remained but six lay peers. Later six ecclesi- 
astical peers were created. 

Feudalism, established in France in the ninth and 
tenth centuries, was afterwards introduced by the 
Normans into Southern Italy and into England, and 
by the Crusaders into all their conquests in the East. 



134 History OF THE Middl'e Ages. 

Germany became feudal at the same time as France, 
and counted among her most ^wwerful lords the 
dukes of Saxony, Eranconia, Suabia, Bavaria, Lor- 
raine, the count palatine, and the mariiraves of 
Brandenburg, Misnia, and Carinthia. In Italy were 
the duchies of Friuli and of Spoleto, the marquis- 
ates of Ivrea, Tuscany, and Camerino, and the 
county of Tusculum, near Eome. Feudalism was 
never perfectly developed in Spain, Portugal, and 
the states of Northern Europe. 

Sec. 3. The last Carlovingians (888-987) and the 
first three Capetian Kings (987-1060). 

ElVALRY OF THE DUKES OF FeAKCE A^T> THE 

LAST Carlo viXGiAxs. — After the deposition of 
Charles the Fat the title o^ kii^g "^vas gives to Eudes, 
count of Paris and duke of France, who had so glo- 
riously and successfully defended the capital. His 
father, Eobert the Strong, had already distinguished 
jiimself against the Normans. 

Eudes (888-898), having directed all his efforts 
against the Normans, found himself unable to with- 
stand the strong party who sustained the rights of 
Charles the Simple, son of Louis the Stammerer ; 
for the sake of peace he ceded one-half of his estates 
to his rival (896). Charles, soon becoming sole king, 
displayed neither courage nor ability against the 
Norman pirates. By the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur- 
Epte (911) he ceded to their chief, Eollo, that part 
of Neu stria called, after them, Normandy. A king 
so feeble-minded before the enemy could not fail to 
be the plaything of his ministers and the victim of 
a turbulent nobility. Eobert, duke of France and 
brother of Eudes, assumed the title of king, and lost 



Third Epoch. 135 

liis life in a battle against his sovereign nnder the 
walls of Soissons. His son, Hugh the Great, who 
commanded under him, utterly defeated the royal 
army (923). The new duke of France, spurning the 
crown, o-ave it to his brother-in-law, Kaoul, duke of 
Burgundy, who spent his reign (923-930) in warring 
with the Hungarians or the rebel lords. 

Charles the Simple, made prisoner by the count of 
Yermandois, died in the castle of Peronne (929). His 
son, who had lied to England, was recalled and pro- 
claimed king under the name of Louis IV., cVOutre- 
mer ("from beyond the sea") (936-954). He boldly 
attempted the conquest of Vermandois and J^^orman- 
dy, but Hugh the Great, to whom he was indebted 
for the crown, foiled his plans, kept him prisoner, 
and took from him even the county of Laon. JSTot 
till after a solemn sentence of excommunication did 
the rebel consent to free the unfortunate monarch and 
to restore his only remaining domain. Owing to the 
support of the duke of France, Lothaire (954-986), 
the son of Louis, inherited the crown. The duke 
himself soon died and left his inheritance to his son, 
Hugh Capet. The new king had won the respect of 
the lords, and resolved to conquer Lorraine, which has 
for so long been a disputed territory between France 
and Germany. He marched upon Aix-la-Chapelle, 
where he came near surprising the Emperor Otho II. 
at the table. The latter, in return, advanced to the 
heights of Montmartre, which overlook Paris, and 
struck fear into the hearts of its citizens by making 
his entire army sing an Alleluia (980). Peace being 
established between the two sovereigns, Lothaire set 
himself to restore the royal authority, Avhen he died 
in the flower of his age. Louis V., his only son and 



136 History of the Middle Ages. 

successor (086-987), has been called *^ Sluggard" 
(Faineant) by some historians, although he had 
some good qualities ; however, he did not remain 
long enough upon the throne to win praise or cen- 
sure. He died at the end of a few months, and was 
the last king of tlie Carlovingian dynasty, Avhich 
had occupied the throne two hundred and thirty-five 
years. 

AccEssiojq- OF THE Capetiaxs ; Hugh Capet 
(987-996).— At the death of Louis V., Hugh Capet, 
duke of France, was unanimously elected king in the 
assembly of Senlis. Thus, feudalism triumphed in 
having its most powerful representative seated on the 
throne. Charles of Lorraine, the uncle of Louis V., 
having asserted his rights with arms in hand, was 
imprisoned and condemned to end his days in the cas- 
tle of Orleans. It was not so easy to overcome the 
great lords, who, although willing to accord Hugh 
Capet the pre-eminence, were unwilling to acknow- 
ledge his: right to give them orders. Consequently 
he exercised full authority only in those domains 
which he held as duke of France. South of the 
Loire he Avas not obeyed. His policy led him to re- 
nounce his authority over the ecclesiastical benefices, 
and by this example to the other lords he won the 
support of the clergy. To make the succession to 
the throne surer and more peaceable than if it were 
left to be decided after his death by election, he had 
his son Robert crowned during his own lifetime. 
His first successors did the same, and thenceforth 
the hereditary transmission of the crown to the eldest 
son was sanctioned, not by an express law but by a 
usage which, finally becoming a fundamental law of 
the state, saved France many revolutions. 



Third Epoch. 137 

EoBEKT (996-1031). — Robert distiiiguislied himself 
by his piety and domestic yirtues. AVheii he was ex- 
communicated for his marriage witli his rehitive, 
Bertha, he separated from her and espoused Con- 
stance, a daughter of the count of Toulouse. This 
intriguing woman twice incited her sons to revolt 
against their father. But Kobert easily induced them 
to return to their duty. At the death of his uncle 
Henry he took possession of the duchy of Burgundy ; 
but his love of peace led him to refuse the crown of 
Italy and of Lorraine. 

Hekry I. (1031-lOGO) ; Truce or God.— Henry I. 
was hardly seated on the throne when he had to 
march against his brother Eobert, instigated to 
revolt by the queen-mother, Constance. He made a 
generous use of his victory by pardoning his brother, 
and even bestowing upon him the investiture of the 
duchy of Burgundy. During his reign France was 
desolated by a horrible famine, which lasted threo 
years (1031-1033). Another scourge not less disas- 
trous was the violence and rapine of the barons, con- 
stantly in arms against each other. To remedy this 
evil the Truce of God (10-11) was adopted through- 
out the continent of Europe. This was a solemn 
compact in the name of God to remain at peace dur- 
ing Advent, Lent, the octavo of the principal feasts, 
and on the days consecrated to the great mysteries of 
rehgion — that is, from Wednesday evening of every 
week till the Monday morning following ; so that 
during these times there was no war, whatever the 
rank of the combatants or the cause of their quarrel. 
As there were lords bold enough to defy the thunders 
of the Church, the Cliurch armed all the faithful 
against them. In every diocese clerks and laymen 



138 History of the Middle Ages, 

formed' confraternities, wherein they bound them- 
selves by oath to fight to the death for the obser- 
vance of the Truce of God. Thenceforth there was 
no one so mighty as to think lie might break the 
truce unpunished. Tlie year before his death Henry 
I. had the eldest of the two sons borne him by 
Anne of Russia solemnly crov/ned at llheims. 
Philip I., during his long reign, remained an in- 
diiferent spectator both of the struggle between 
the priesthood and the empire, and of the glorious 
exploits by which some of his subjects founded king- 
doms in the south of Italy, in England, Spain, and 
Palestine, 



CHAPTER n. 

THE INVASIONS OF THE NINTH AND TENTH 
CENTURIES. 

The fall of the Carlovingian Empire, like that of the Roman, 
coincides with the barl^arian invasions. Christian Europe 
is attacked on the south by the Arabs, on the east by the 
Hungarians, on the north and west by the Normans' who 
make several permanent settlements in Russia. Enijland, 
and in a French province called, after them, Normanily ; 
and this last sends out the conquerors of England and "of 
the two Sicilies. 

Sec. 1. Invasions of the Saracens and Hungarians ; 

the Saracens in Italy and in France. 

The Saracens, masters of Spain and of the African 
coast, had easily got possession of Corsica, Sardinia, 
and the othgr islands of the Mediterranean, which 
became so many retreats, whence they carried fire and 
SAvord to the neighboring coasts. From Sicilv they 



Third Epoch, 139 

invaded Soiitliern Italy, which, because of the dissen- 
sions of the Greeks and Lombards, fell almost com- 
pletely into their hands. The rich monastery of 
Monte Cassino Avas reduced to ashes, and tlie liomans 
themselves were unable to defend the basilicas of the 
apostles Peter and Paul from pillage. Again was a 
pope to be the liberator of Italy. Leo IV. gave an 
example of heroism. He put chains across the Tiber 
to interrupt its navigation, and walled in the Vati- 
can quarter, since then called the Leonine City 
(855). His zeal was ably seconded by the Emperor 
Louis 11. , the son of Lothaire. All Italians were 
summoned to the defence of their country. The 
infidels, worsted in several encounters, and at last 
driven to their entrenched camp on the Garigliauo 
(916), lost all their conquests on the Peninsula. 

Their dominion lasted longer in the south of 
Prance. In the year 8-11 they had made themselves 
masters of the mouths of the Ehone. After sacking 
the cities of Aries and Marseilles they took up a 
strong position at Praxinet, whence they extended 
their ravages throughout Provence, Dauphiny, and 
the neighboring territories (888-972). 

Holding the passes of the Alps, they cut off com- 
munication between France and Italy, and captured 
many pilgrims on their way to Rome. The abbot of 
Cluny fell into the hands of these brigands, and re- 
covered his liberty only by delivering up all the trea- 
sures of his monastery. Indignation was general, 
and the lords of the country, till then divided, agreed 
to make common cause under the leadership of Wil- 
liam, viscount of Marseilles, wdio won the glorious 
title of '^Father of his Country " by clearing Praxi- 
net and the Provenyal coasts of the Saracens (972). 



140 History of the 3Iiddle Ages. 

Il^rCURSION"S OE THE Huis^GAllIAXS INTO ItALY, 

France, and Germany. — The Hungarians, or Ma- 
gyars, came from the Ural towards the close of the 
ninth century, and settled with their chief, Arjmd, in 
the valley between the Theiss and the Danube. This 
countr}', called from them Hungary, was then inha- 
bited by a small number of the Avari. The two 
peoples, being of the same origin, easily blended. 
Arnulf, king of Germany, imprudently asked the 
assistance of these Asiatic hordes in his war with 
the Moravians, whose ])ower seemed to menace the 
Germans. A single campaign sufficed the Hunga- 
rians to destroy the Moravian empire. So easy a 
triumph emboldened them to cross the Alps and 
pillage Italy. They met no obstacle, owing to the 
rivalry of the princes, and advanced to the south of 
the Peninsula, leaving ruin and desolation behind. 
Soon afterwards they ascended the Danube and fell 
upon France, committing such excesses that their 
common name, ogres, came to mean monsters of 
cruelty. Their ravaging bands were planning to rob 
Cordova of the treasures of the caliphs when they 
WTre checked and beaten in Aquitaine by Raymond, 
count of Toulouse (925). Germany had still more 
to suffer than France. The irruptions of the Hun- 
garians continued until their disastrous defeat near 
Augsburg (955). Nothing but Christianity was 
able to tame their savage nature. Their chief, Vaic, 
having been baptized under the name of Stephen, 
succeeded, by his great zeal, in converting all his 
people. The Sovereign Pontiff, as a mark of grati- 
tude, sent him (1000) a crown with the title of 
'^apostolic king," which the emperors of Austria 
still retain. St. Stephen, successful in all his un- 



Third Epoch. 141 

dertakiiigs, conquered Transylvania and subdued the 
Slavs and Bulgarians. Hungary, wliicli had so long 
been the retreat of barbarians, was thenceforth the 
bulwark of Christendom. 

Sec. 2. Invasions of the Normans in Russia, Eng- 
land, and the Carlovingian Empire ; Hollo and 
Normandy (911). 

Origii^ of the Normans. — The Normans, or 
Northmen, inhabited the country known by the an- 
cients as Scandinavia, and now comprising the king- 
doms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Either 
because they were too crowded on their barren soil 
or were harassed by intestine struggles, they yearly 
set out in frail barks, which they called their sail- 
horses, to seek new homes. Being fearless seamen, 
they delighted to brave the fury of the winds and 
waves. "The storm," they sang, "^Ms at our beck ; 
it sweeps us whither we wish to go." The worship 
of Odin fostered their warlike and venturesome 
spirit. The war-god prepared fights and feasts with- 
out end for his braves, which, after their death in 
glorious battle, they were to enjoy in his abode, called 
"Walhalla ; but for cowards was only the table of 
Hunger in the house of Torment. Such a prospect, 
joined to the restless enterprise of the Northmen and 
their propensity for plunder, led them for more than 
a century to infest all the countries bordering on 
the Baltic and the Atlantic. 

RURIK FOUNDS THE PiUSSIAN MONARCHY (862) ; 

St. Vladimir (973-1015).— The Northmen, long 
known by their ravages on the eastern coast of the 
Baltic, at length found an opportunity to make a 
lasting settlement. One of their chiefs, Rurik, hav- 



142 History of the Middle Ages. 

ing aided the inhabitants of Novgorod, became mas- 
ter of the city, with the title of grand duke (802). 
He is looked upon as the true founder of the Kussian 
monarchy. His son, Igor, annexed the city of Kief 
to his dominions, whicli he extended from the Baltic 
to the ]^orth Sea. Already the Russians, sailing 
down the Dnieper in their light barks, had reached 
the walls of Constantinople, and under Vladimir the 
Great, the grandson of Igor, threatened the capital 
of the East. To induce him to retreat, the Princess 
Anna, sister of the emperors Basil and Constantino, 
was given him in marriage, on condition that he 
would embrace the Christian religion. Enlightened 
by the lessons and virtues of his consort, he and a 
great number of his subjects asked to be baptized 
(988). They then burnt all the idols except the 
principal one, which they fastened to the tail of a 
horse that was beaten and driven into the Dnieper. 
Next day the Russians waded waist-deep into the 
stream, and priests ranged along the shore adminis- 
tered baptism. Thenceforth religion began to work 
a change in the manners of this barbarous race. 
Vladimir himself, fierce and cruel as he was at first, 
became so compassionate to the poor and sick that 
he anxiously sought them out by his servants laden 
with provisions of all kinds. Having seen in the 
Gospel the blessing promised to the merciful, he 
abolished capital punishment ; but crime increased 
so rapidly that he was soon obliged to re-establish a 
punishment necessary to the peace and safety of 
society. Jaroslav or Yaroslaf I., a son of St. Vladi- 
mir, gave his subjects a code of wise laws under the 
name of "Russian Truths." There were thenceforth 
in Russia three distinct classes : the boyards or no- 



Third Epoch. 143 

bles, the commoners, and tlie serfs. Jaroslav, having 
inherited his father's zeal for the Catholic religion, 
reigned happily, and placed his three daughters on 
the thrones of France, Hungary, and Norway. 

iN^VASIOi^ OF THE POLAR EEGIOi^^S AKD OF Ei^-G- 

LAKD ; Alfred the Great (871-900).— The North- 
men had i^ushed westward also through the polar re- 
gions to North America. After taking the Faroe 
Islands and Iceland they discovered Greenland, New- 
foundland, and, it is believed, the continent of the 
New World. Having overrun a good 2:>art of Ire- 
land and the islands around England, they landed in 
the latter country towards the year 830. Egbert, 
King of Wessex, had just extended his sway over the 
other kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (827). 
This prince, reared in the court and amid the armies 
of Charlemagne, easily kej^t the Danish pirates at 
bay, but after his death they unceasingly renewed 
their descents and ravages, and ended by settling at 
the north of the Heptarchy in the three kingdoms of 
the Angles. 

Alfred the Great, the grandson of Egbert, ascend- 
ed the throne at the age of twenty-two, and succeed- 
ed at once in expelling the Danes from his four 
paternal kingdoms. This able and courageous prince 
possessed a wide learning, acquired in study and on 
his journeys to Eome and France. Either because he 
was unable to conceal his dislike for the coarse man- 
ners of his subjects, or because he had worn out their 
courage in his repeated encounters, he was soon with- 
out followers, and had to seek refuge in a desert 
island in Somersetshire. 

A poor woodcutter received the fugitive king in 
his hut. Here he remained unrecognized by his 



144 History of the Middle Ages. 

enemies, and was obliged to give himself to heavy 
toil. He found consolation in religion, and the 
cruelties of his enemies soon furnished him the 
means of reascending the throne. The Danes, ravag- 
in'-j- the country with fire and sword, had at last 
aroused the Anglo-Saxons. Alfred secretly quitted 
his retreat, and summoned his warriors by sending 
them an arrow and a naked sword. They assembled 
at Egbert's Stone in the seventh week after Easter. 
Hard by was the Danish camp, whither Alfred re- 
paired disguised as a harper, and w^iile amusing the 
enemy ascertained their position and resources. On 
returning he headed his army, fell uj^on the Danes, 
cut them to pieces, and compelled their chief, Gutli- 
run, to receive baptism and to evacuate the country 
south of the Thames (878). 

Alfred governed Avisely and vigorously. To defend 
his kingdom against the Danes he built fortresses 
and equipped a fleet, which enabled him to repulse 
the attacks of Hasting, the most powerful chief of 
the pirates. England was divided into shires, or 
counties, which were subdivided into hundreds, and 
the hundreds into tithings consisting of ten free- 
holders and their families. The ten freeholders were 
responsible for offences committed within their juris- 
diction, and decided the cases that occurred in their 
community ; those of the communities were judged 
by an assembly of twelve freeholders elected from the 
hundred ; hence the origin, it is thought, of the Eng- 
lish jury. Above the assembly of the hundred was 
that of the shire, or county, wiiich sat twice a year 
and w^as presided over by the ealdorman, or earl, as- 
sisted by the bishop. A sheriff (shire-reeve), named 
by the king, protected tlie interests of the shire and 



Third Epoch, 145 

collected fines. The greiit natioiicil council, called the 
Witenagemot (council of the wise), was composed at 
first of all the freemen, and afterwards of the thanes, 
or most powerful lords. 

Supreme in the hierarchy was the king, whose 
croAvn was both elective and hereditary in the same 
family, and whose power was limited by the Wittena- 
gemot. 

Alfred the Great compiled in one code all the ordi- 
nances of his predecessors, and inflicted the penalty 
of retaliation on dishonest judges. A chronicler 
records that in the space of a year nearly forty 
magistrates were executed for passing irregular sen- 
tences. Theft became so rare that, the king having 
hung up his most yaluable jewels on the highway, no 
one dared to lay hands upon them. Tf hile inspiring 
his subjects w4th salutary fear, Alfred labored to 
diffuse religious instruction and the love of litera- 
ture among them. Many learned men were invited 
to his court, and he himself was justly esteemed one 
of the most accomplished scholars of his age. He 
translated from Latin into Anglo-Saxon the Ecclesi- 
astical History of the Venerable Bede, the treatise on 
the Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius, and the 
Pastoral of St. Gregory the Great, a copy of which 
he sent to each cathedral. To this jirince is attri- 
buted the foundation of the famous university of 
Oxford. 

Period of Glory (000-978), followed by Dis- 
asters uiTDER Etiielred II. (978-lOlG). — Edward 
I., surnamed the Elder, continuing the glorious work 
of his father, increased his territory at the expense 
of the Danes. His son Athelstan (924-9-40) com- 
pleted the conquest of the three kingdoms of the 



146 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

Angles by defeating Anlaf, who had brought an 
army of Danes or Ostmen from Ireland, and had been 
joined by a great number of AVelsh and Scots. This 
bloody and decisive victory was won at Brunanburgh, 
and is known in the Saxon ballads as '* the day of 
the great combat." The AVelsh and the Scots, who 
had made an alliance with the Danes, submitted to 
the conqueror. Athelstan by his wisdom and piety 
united all the kingdoms of the Ilcj^tarchy under his 
sway ; he is said to have been the first to assume the 
title of '^ving of England." His renown spread 
over the continent, and his three daughters espoused 
Otho I., Charles the Simj^le, and Hugh the Great, 
Duke of France. The reign of his nephew Edgar 
was equally glorious and prosperous, owing to the 
influence of St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury ; 
but the accession of Ethelred II., son of Edgar, ush- 
ered in many calamities. 

The Danes reappeared in greater number than be- 
fore. Instead of opposing them, Ethelred purchased 
their withdrawal for £10,000, which only lured them 
back again. The tax called the danegelt (Dane-gold) 
thenceforth weighed on the English and offered a 
constant inducement to the barbarians. Ethelred 
thought by the use of perfidy to end the evils that 
were charged to his cowardice. By his orders all the 
Danes of his kingdom were massacred on St. Brice's 
day (November 13, 1002). They did not spare even 
the sister of Sweyn, king of Denmark, a convert to 
the true faith ; all her children were slaughtered 
before her eyes, and she died exclaiming : '^ God 
will punish you, and my brother will avenge me." 

Sweyn, burning with vengeance, soon landed on 
the English coast at the head of a numerous army. 



Third Epocm 147 

To stimulate tlie ardor of his soldiers lie unfurled liis 
standard of white silk, on which was embroidered a 
crow, a national emblem of ill-omen. Three of 
Sweyn's sisters had made the banner during the 
night, and they had accompanied their work with 
dreadful imprecations. The vengeance was what 
might have been looked for from the Danish pirates ; 
pillage, burnings, and massacres covered England 
with blood and ruins. St. Elphege, archbishop of 
Canterbury, having refused to deliver up the trea- 
sures of his church and of the poor, was led before 
their chiefs in the midst of a drunken orgy. " Gold, 
bishop ! " they cried ; ''give us gold, or we shall slay 
you." ''I have none to offer," replied the coura- 
geous prelate, "but the gold of the Gospel." At 
these words the drunken ruffians felled him with 
blows and struck off his head. The cowardly 
Ethelred, instead of defending his subjects, tried to 
ransom them by paying the Danes to depart ; but 
Sweyn, having laid waste the country, undertook its 
conquest. The king of England was compelled to 
flee to Normandy (1013) to Duke Richard IL, whose 
sister Emma he had married. He was recalled by 
his subjects, and at his death (1016) left all his 
rights to his eldest son, Edmund Ironside. Canute 
the Great, who had succeeded to the inheritance of 
his father, Sweyn (1014), was compelled to cede half 
of the Heptarchy to the brave Edmund ; but the 
death of his rival soon left him sole ruler of Eng- 
land (1017). 

Danish Domiition (1017-1042) ; Canute the 
Gkeat (1017-1035).— Canute tfhe Great merited his 
surname by his piety, wisdom, and power. After his 
conversion he bitterly deplored the cruelties which he 



148 History of the 3Iiddle Ages. 

and his fatlier liacl perpetrated in the struggle against 
the Anglo-Saxons ; he built churches and monaster- 
ies on all the battle-fields where the blood of the two 
nations had flowed. To cement the union of yictors 
and vanquished he married Emma, the widow of 
Ethelred II. ; he restored the ancient laws and sup- 
pressed all the privileges of the Danes. So great vv'as 
his popularity that wherever he went the people ex- 
claimed : ^* May the blessing of the Lord be upon 
Canute, King of the English ! " This prince had at 
one time the crowns of England, Denmark, Sweden, 
and JSTorway, so that he was called *^ Emperor of the 
North. '^ His humility equalled his power ; in a fa- 
mous pilgrimage to Eome he was seen walking in the 
streets with a wallet and staff. An admirable letter 
addressed to his subjects informed them of his voav to 
observe justice and piety. He concluded by urging 
them to be regular in the payment of Peter's pence. 
This was a tax, which he had established for the bene- 
fit of the Holy See, of a farthing on every hearth in 
his kingdom. One day, as Canute was walking on the 
sea-shore near Southampton, one of his courtiers re- 
marked that earth and sea obeyed the king's behest. 
The king, seating himself on the strand, commanded 
the waves to witlidraw and respect the sovereign of 
six kingdoms ; but the tide, continuing to rise, 
threatened to submerge him. Then, retreating, he 
exclaimed : ** Behold how the sea obeys me ! Know, 
then, that the King of heaven alone has the right to 
say to the waves, ' Tlius far, and no farther.' " Pro- 
foundly impressed with this thought, he had no 
sooner returned to Winchester than he took the 
crown from his head and set it on the great crucifix 



Third Epoch, 149 

of the cathedral, nor would he again wear it from 
that day, eyen during public ceremonies. 

This good king's sons — Harold Harefoot (1035- 
1040) and Hardicanute (1038-1042)— showed them- 
selves unworthy of the throne. The Anglo-Saxons, 
again oppressed by the Danes, recalled Ethelred's 
son, Edward, who was living in exile in Normandy. 

Incuesioks akd Principal Posts oe the Nor- 
mals IN THE Carlovingian Empire. — In the begin- 
ning of the ninth century tlie Normans had made but 
flying descents upon the coasts of the Carlovingian Em- 
pire. Landing suddenly in an ill-defended country, 
they w^ould load their ships with booty and set sail at 
once. The inefficiency of Louis the Debonnaire and 
his sons rendered the pirates the bolder, and they took 
up their posts at the mouths of the rivers. Usually 
this post was established on an island, like Walche- 
ren at the mouth of the Scheldt and Mouse, Noir- 
moutiers at the mouth of the Loire, or Oissel on the 
Seine, near Rouen. The Normans of Walcheren 
ravaged all the country as far as the Rhine, and 
burned Aix-la-Chapelle. King Arnulf put an end 
to their depredations bv the great victory of Louvain 
(891). 

In the west of France the dominion of the ^lirates 
was still more lasting and calamitous. Landing in 
830 on the island of Her, they burnt a monastery of 
Benedictines. Whilst they extended their ravages on 
both sides of the Loire, other marauders posted at 
Oissel sacked the city of Rouen. One of their most 
famous chiefs, Ragnar Lodbrog, boldly ascended the 
Seine to Paris (845). He gave up the city to fire 
and bloodshed before the very eyes of Charles the 
Bald, who entrenched himself in the abbey of St. 



150 History of the Middle Ages, 

Denis. The weak monarch bought the barbarians 
with gold. Sometimes carrying their frail skiffs 
across land from river to river, and sometimes 
mounted on horses they had seized, they scoured the 
country, quick and terrible as lightning. At their 
approach all fled in dismay, bearing afar the relics 
of saints and adding to tlie litany this invocation : 
"From the fury of the Normans, Lord, deliver 
us ! " It was at this time that by the king's orders 
strongholds were built on the cliffs to serve as places 
of refuge from the pirates. 

One of the barons, however, boldly opposed them 
in an open campaign, and by his exploits won the re- 
putation of a Machabeus and the honor of being the 
founder of a new dynasty. Eobert the Strong had 
received from Charles the Bald, under the title of 
duchy of France, all the country between the Seine 
and the Loire. Victorious in several encounters, he 
thought the time had come to crush the most ter- 
rible of the sea-kings. Hasting, after pillaging 
Nantes, Tours, Aquitaine, and Spain, advanced by 
the Mediterranean to Tuscany, where he took the 
little city of Luna by a stratagem. The ignorant 
barbarian supposed it to be Rome and went no far- 
ther. Eeturning to France, he passed, with a small 
number of followers, near Brissarthe to the north of 
Angers. Here Robert awaited him. Hasting was 
defeated and sought shelter in a neighboring church ; 
but Robert, imprudently laying aside his armor to take 
repose, was attacked unawares and killed (86G). This 
success of the Normans brought fresh ravages upon 
France ; the fairest provinces were changed into de- 
serts and wild beasts again roamed over the country. 

Settlement of the Nouma]S"s I]s^ France ; Teea- 



Third Epoch, 151 

TT OF St. Claik-sur-Epte (911). — The scourge ceased 
only with the final settlement of the Normans in 
France. Hasting was baptized and obtained the 
county of Chartres from Charles the Bald, and at 
once closed the Loire against his countrymen. After 
the heroic resistance of Eudes, Duke of France (886), 
the pirates of the Seine no longer dared ascend to 
Paris ; but one of their most formidable chiefs, called 
Eollo, seized Eouen, which he made his rallying 
point. Charles the Simple, thinking it easier to gain 
him over than to oppose him, held a parley with 
him at St. Clair-sur-Epte (911) ; he offered him his 
daughter Gisela in marriage, with a part of Neustria 
for dower, on condition that he would pay homage 
for this duchy, and that he and his Normans would 
embrace the Christian religion. Eollo consented and 
was baptized, under the name of Eobert, with nearly 
all his followers. After their conversion the Normans 
were entirely changed in their way of living. The 
laws of the new duke, upheld by those of religion, 
gave the death-blow to rapine and violence among a 
people who till then had lived by murder and rob- 
bery. Under so wise and vigorous a government the 
face of the country was changed, and Normandy be- 
came as flourishing as the rest of France was unfor- 
tunate. This was a new foothold for the Normans, 
whence they sallied forth to the conquest of south- 
ern Italy, England, and the East. 

Sec. 3. Conquests of the French Normans ; Founda- 
tion of the Kingdom of the tico Sicilies ; William 
the Conqueror in England (1066). 

The Normals in" the Cou:n^ty of Ayersa 
(1030) ; Eobert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and 



152 History of the Middle Ages. 

Calabeia (1059). — Forty Norman i)ilgTims, return- 
ing from tlie Iloly Land, were tarrying in the city of 
Salerno wlicn the Saracens arrived to levy the annual 
tribute on the inhabitants. The Normans, indignant 
at the sight of infidels oppressing a Christian people, 
fell upon them suddenly and cut them to pieces (101 6). 
The account of this adventure and the display of the 
rich presents made to the conquerors induced many 
Normans to seek their fortunes in the south of Italy. 
The duke of Salerno, desiring to attach them to his 
service, gave one of their chiefs the county of Aversa 
(1030). This incited the cui:»idity of the Normans, 
who felt themselves able to master a country given 
over to anarchy. Tlie Greeks, who were rulers of 
Apulia and Calabria, vainly attempted to drive the 
Saracens from Sicily and to extend their dominion 
over the Lombard duchy of Beneventum, as also over 
Naples and the other maritime cities which had been 
erected into republics. 

A reduced nobleman of Cotentin, named Tancred 
of Hauteville, having twelve sons, sent the three 
eldest to seek glory and wealth in southern Italy. 
One of them, called William Iron Arm on account 
of his strength, having enlisted in the service of the 
Greeks, conquered the Saracens in Sicily. The pro- 
mised pay heing withheld, William, at the head 
of twelve hundred of his countrymen, risked 
battle with an army of sixty thousand men, and 
routed them near Canne (1042). The result of this 
brilliant victory was the conquest of Apulia. The 
victor died shortly after, but left brothers worthy of 
himself : Drogon, Humphrey, Eobert Guiscard (the 
Prudent), and Roger. 

Pope Leo IX., having made an alliance with the 



Third Epoch, ^ 153 

emperors of Germany and the East, strove to check 
the progress of the Normans. He advanced in per- 
son to Civitella (1053). His troops were put to 
flight and he himself fell into the hands of the Nor- 
mans, who cast themselves at his feet, craving his 
blessing and the honor of being his vassals for all the 
fiefs they had conquered or might conquer in south- 
ern Italy. The pope acquiesced, and, captive as he 
was, became the suzerain of the victors. Eobert 
Guiscard, whose courage equalled his ability, effected 
the expulsion of the Greeks from Calabria. Pope 
Nicholas II. consented to confer upon him the title 
of duke of Apulia and Calabria (1059), as also that 
of duke of Sicily, although the island was still Jield 
by the Saracens. Eobert commissioned his youngest 
brother, Roger, to conquer it, while he continued to 
extend his dominion throughout southern Itialy. 
After driving out the Greeks he pursued them to the 
Ionian Islands, and even to Albania. It is said that 
the bold Norman contemplated the conquest of 
the whole Eastern empire. Robert Guiscard had 
already thrice vanquished the emperor Alexis Com- 
nenus when lie heard the appeal of St. Gregory 
VII. (1084). The sovereign pontiif, besieged in 
Rome by the Emperor Henry lY., found none 
who could liberate him but the Normans, the vas- 
sals of the Holy See. Robert obeyed in all haste, 
scattered the Germans, and conducted the venerable 
pontiff to Salerno. He was then at liberty to resume 
his series of successes against the Greeks, in which 
death alone checked him in the island of Cephalonia 
(1085). His youngest son, Roger Bursa, received 
nearly all the inheritance, and nothing was left to 
the eldest, Bohemond, prince of Tarentum, who in- 



154 History of the Middle Ages. 

dcmnifiC'd liimself by glorious conquests in the East. 
AVith AVilliam, the son and successor of Roger, was 
severed the direct line of Robert Guiscard (1127). 

The KiXGDOii of the Two Sicilies (1139). — 
Roger, the last son of Tancred, commissioned by his 
brother, Robert Guiscard, to take Sicily from the 
Saracens, distinguished himself by prodigies of valor. 
Three hundred knights sufficed him to capture the 
important city of Messina. It is related that, being 
besieged in Trani, he made a sortie against the infi- 
dels, and remained alone on the battle-field, hemmed 
in by a swarm of the enemy, who killed his horse 
under him. His strength equalled his courage, and 
he succeeded in extricating himself, slung the saddle 
across his back, and walking backwards, sword in 
hand, reached the city without leaving any spoil in 
the hands of the miscreants. After a heroic struggle 
of thirty years (lOGO-1091) Roger was master of 
Sicily, and took the title of ''grand count." Ilis 
son, Roger II., succeeded him. Having inherited the 
estates of his cousin AVilliam (1127), he obtained of 
Pope Innocent II. the confirmation of the title of 
''King of the Two Sicilies," on condition of acknow- 
ledging the suzerainty of the Holy See (1139). As 
he possessed all the qualifications of his father, he 
was so fortunate as to add to his new kingdom the 
island of Malta, Tunis, Tripoli, and several cities of 
Greece ; he ruled the Mediterranean and menaced 
Constantinople. After the less glorious reigns of his 
son and grandson, the Emperor Henry VI., who had 
married Constance, the daughter of Roger, transferred 
the feudal kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the Ger- 
man dominion of the Hohenstaufens (1189). 

By the close of the eleventh century the French 



Third Epoch. 155 

Normans, through their occupation of southern Italy, 
had rendered three important services to Christen- 
dom : they had defended the independence of the 
Holy See against the pretensions of the German em- 
perors ; they had driven the Greeks beyond the 
Adriatic ; and they had flung the Mussulmans back 
to the African coasfc. 

Edward the Coiq-FESSOR, Kixg of Ekglajs^d 
(1042-1066) ; Harold, and William, Duke of 
NoRMAKDY. — Edward, called the Confessor, or the 
Saint, was the youngest son of Ethelred II., and, 
having ascended the throne of his ancestors, could 
not forget the hospitality of his cousin, the duke of 
]!!^ormandy. Gratitude naturally led him to lavish 
favors upon Norman lords. It is a dangerous thing 
for a prince to show a strong leaning towards 
foreigners or foreign manners ; this Edward soon 
found out. To be sure he displayed the most ad- 
mirable virtues and an ardent zeal for the happiness 
of his subjects. He lessened their taxes and sup- 
pressed the danegelt ; he gave fresh vigor to wise 
laws which had seemed dead, and made no war ex- 
cept against MacBeth, king of Scotland, who had 
usurped the throne by assassination. Nevertheless, 
the Anglo-Saxons, partly through patriotism, partly 
through envy, constantly showed their dissatisfaction 
with the monarch's love of the Normans. Even 
Edward's father-in-law, Godwin, earl of Kent, who 
was the most powerful of the Saxon nobles, and who 
had pretensions to the throne, actually raised the 
standard of revolt. Banished to the Continent, he 
soon returned to England and drove out all foreign- 
ers. Robert of Jumieges, driven from the primatial 
see of Canterbury, was succeeded by a schismatical 



156 History of the Middle Ages. 

prelate. Clergy and courtiers were under Godwin's 
evil influence. Godwin's eldest son, Harold, soon 
inherited liis power, and at once set himself to over- 
throw Edward's authority. Edward the Confessor, 
feeling the need of a vigorous hand to hold the reins 
of government, solemnly designated as his successor 
his cousin AVilliam, duke of Kormandy. But scarce- 
ly had he breathed his last when Harold, aided by 
numerous adherents, had himself proclaimed king 
of England (January, 1066). 

William, originally called the Bastard because ho 
was the illegitimate son of Robert the Magnificent, 
or the Devil, had held the duchy of Normandy for 
thirty years. In his youth he had shown sufficient 
spirit to control his rebellious barons and to face 
the king of France. His ambition equalling his 
abilities, he had always aspired to the throne of 
England. Harold the Saxon, who was William's 
only rival, liad by a solemn oath renounced all claims 
to the English throne, and pledged himself to uphold 
the Norman duke's right of succession. William's 
vexation was extrcmo when, by the same courier, he 
learned the news of Edward's death and of the ac- 
cession of Harold. He at once made known his 
determination to punish the perjury. At liis appeal 
a multitude of Normans and of adventurers from 
every land flocked to his standard. Pope Alexander 
II., acknowledging the legitimacy of his claim, sent 
liim a blessed standard and placed his expedition 
under the patronage of St. Peter. 

Battle of Hastij^-gs (October, 1066) ; William 
THE Coiq-QUEROR. — William, sailing from St. Valery, 
on the Somme, with a fleet of 1,400 vessels and an army 
of 60,000 men, landed at Pevensey, in the county of 



Third Epoch, 157 

Sussex. As lie set foot on shore lie stumbled and fell. 
Perceiving that his companions looked upon this as 
a bad omen, ' ' What is the matter with you ? " said 
he, rising. " I have just seized this land with both 
hands, and, by the splendor of God, it shall all belong 
to you." Harold was in another i:>art of the island 
engaged in a struggle with one of his brothers, who 
w^as supported by the Norwegians, but he arrived 
soon after, exhausted with fatigue, at the head of his 
victorious army. The Anglo-Saxons fought on foot 
with battle-axes and kept close to their leader ; the 
Kormans fought on horseback, wielding the lance or 
the sword with equal skill. Besides, the !N"ormans 
had confidence in the justice of their cause against 
an excommunicated enemy, and they had spent the 
night in religious exercises ; while the Anglo-Saxons, 
with their national love of strong drink, were revel- 
ling till the dawn of the day that was to decide the 
fate of their country. William, taking Heayen to 
witness the justice of his cause, had his troops 
blessed by his brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and 
then led them against the enemy, intoning the 
famous song of the paladin Eoland. This was the 
first time that the Saxons had heard the Normans' 
terrible war-cry of " Ho ! Eou " (Rollo), not unknown 
in Ireland even now by the descendants of those 
same Normans. The Saxons, entrenched behind a 
palisade, opposed an invincible resistance ; but Wil- 
liam, by a simulated flight, drew them into the 
plain and cut them to pieces. So ended one of the 
bloodiest and most decisive battles of the Middle Ages. 
It was fought at Senlac, near the village of Hastings. 
Next day Harold and his two brothers were found 
among the slain. The conqueror at once occupied 



158 History of the Middle Ages, 

Dover to ensure liis communi cation with France, 
and marched to London, wliere he met no resistance, 
and was crowned king of Engl-md in the church of 
Westminster (December 25, 1066). 

NoilMAi^ EOYALTY Ai^D FEUDALISM I^^" EkGLAND. 

— William, having won a kingdom in a day, could 
ensure its possession only by depriving its inhabitants 
of every means of resistance. To keep the London- 
ers in allegiance he built the strong fortress known 
as the Tower of London. All the kinsmen of Harold 
were vigilantly guarded, but they at last escaped, 
and, profiting by the absence of William in Nor- 
mandy, concocted a great conspiracy. It is said, 
though perhaps without truth, that William's absence 
w^as contrived as a temptation to revolt, which might 
offer a plausible excuse for wholesale confiscation. 
During the religious exercises of Ash Wednesday all 
the JSTormans were to fall under the blows of the 
Saxons. William hastened back to England and 
ordered the massacres of Oxford and Exeter. But 
the insurrection continued, and Ilcreward, a Saxon 
thane, assembled a multitude of the rebels on the 
Isle of Ely, north of Cambridge. This was called 
the " Camp of Eefuge." William attacked them 
here, and the Saxons, terribly straitened, appealed 
for aid to the Danes and Scots. William paid the 
Danes to retreat, made the king of Scotland his 
"vassal, and destroyed most of the champions of Saxon 
independence. The survivors fled to the depths of 
forests, and under the name of " outlaws " made 
themselves notorious as brigands. 

William the Conqueror as soon as possible hastened 
to make use of the supposed riglit of the conqueror to 
the goods of the conquered, and confiscated the whole 



Third Epoch. 159 

land for his own benefit. After seizing more than 
fourteen hundred estates, which he parcelled among 
his followers, he retained for himself the chief pro- 
prietorship of six hundred baronies, which comprised 
62,500 knights' fees of one hundred and twenty acres 
each. The register of all the lands, drawn uj) with 
extreme care, was deposited in the treasury of Win- 
chester Cathedral. The Normans called this register 
the Land Boole, or Royal Book, but the Saxons, in 
bitter pleasantry, named it the Book of the Day of 
Judgment, or Doomsday Book, and by this latter name 
it is best known. Feudal rule, military in its regu- 
larity, gave almost absolute authority to the king. 
Besides reviving the ancient taxes, even the danegelt, 
William ordained the curfew {couvrefeu), which re- 
quired all lights and fires to be extinguished at eight 
o'clock in the evening at the signal given by the cur- 
few-bell. A law was passed which made the inhabi- 
tants of a village or hundred in which a K"orman was 
found murdered liable to a fine, unless the murderer 
was produced within eight days, or unless it was proved 
that the murdered man was an Englishman. This 
law was rigorously enforced ; it became known as the 
*^ presentment of Englishry." It was also enacted 
that no language but the ISTorman — a dialect of 
French — should be employed in the public transac- 
tions. This was intended to destroy the Anglo-Saxon 
tongue. William's government had the support of 
the clergy, who had received rich endowments and 
an independent jurisdiction. The celebrated Lan- 
franc, nominated archbishop of Canterbury, intro- 
duced wise reforms into the English Church. This 
was one of the benefits of the Conquest, which be- 
sides put the country in a defensible position against 



160 History of the Middle Ages, 

the Danes, and introduced the humanizing influences 
of continental civilization amongst a people who still 
retained many of the barbarous, not to say disgusting 
and brutal, manners of their ancestors. 



CHAPTER III. 

GERMANY AND ITALY. 

From the dismemberment of the Carlovingian Empire till the 
Investitures (888-1073) these two countries are distinct; 
afterwards Germany, taking possession of the empire, sub- 
jects the Italians, and even the popes. 

Sec. 1. The Germanic Kingdom and the Northern 
Races (888-962). 

The Last Two Carlovingiaxs of GERMA^s'y. — 
While Charles the Fat passed into obscurity, his 
nephew, Arnulf, hailed king of the Eastern Franks 
by all the Germans, received the homage successively 
of the kings Eudes of France, Eudolph and Louis of 
the two Burgundies, and Berenger of Northern Italy. 
He repaid their homage by a brilliant victory over 
the common enemy. Eighty thousand Northmen, 
headed by Sigefried and defended by their ramparts, 
ravaged Lorraine and lower Germany in defiance of 
the feeble successors of Charlemagne. Arnulf seized 
liis royal banner and marched to attack tliem near 
Louvain ; he slew several thousand of the barbarians, 
pursued others, and captured sixteen standards. In 
the East he vainly strove to convert the Wends and 
to subdue the Bohemians and Moravians. Arnulf, 



Third Efoch, 161 

incensed at tlie resistance of Zwentibald, duke of Mo- 
ravia, formed the unfortunate design of leaguing with 
the fierce Magyars, or Hungarians, who had just ap- 
peared in Europe. Zwentibald Avas defeated and the 
power of the Moravians humbled ; but this advantage 
was dearly paid for by the successors of Arnulf. 
This prince, feehng bound to interfere in the affairs 
of Italy, had himself crowned emperor of the West. 
But hardly had he recrossed the Alps than the 
Italians disowned his authority. Arnulf died soon 
after (899). His son, Louis IV., ^*The Infant," 
then seven years old, was at once acknowledged by 
the German lords, '^because the Frankish kings were 
always chosen from the same race." Louis was 
acknowledged also by the two Lorraines. His youth 
favored the great lords, who strengthened their own 
authority in the provinces. At this time, too, 
Arpad, khan of the Hungarians, assisted by the 
Bohemians, hanged the last of the Moravian princes, 
marched against Germany, slew the dukes of Bavaria 
and Thuringia, and then with his hordes overran 
western Europe. Meanwhile Louis IV. died during 
his minority (911). 

Elective Kings ; Coi^ead I. (911-918).— With 
Louis the Infant died the Germanic branch of the 
Carlovingians. The Lorraines fell to the king of 
France, who was Charles the Simj)le, the only direct 
descendant of Charlemagne. But the Germans pre- 
ferred to elect a king who was bound to themselves. 
Conrad I. had the majority of votes. Then began 
the wars between the king and the great vassals, one 
of whom, Henry of Saxony, signally defeated the 
royal army ; the other, Arnulf of Bavaria, called in 
the Hungarians. AVhile fighting the latter Conrad 



162 History of the Middle Ages. 

was mortally wounded ; then, summoning liis brother 
Eberhard, he commissioned him to bear the royal in- 
signia to his greatest enemy, the duke of Saxony, 
whom alone he judged worthy the choice of the elec- 
tors. Eberhard found Henry at the chase, his falcon 
on his wrist, hence his surname of the "Fowler." 
He was solemnly proclaimed king at Fritzlar by the 
assembly of bishops and lords in presence of the 
people ; he was clothed with the royal mantle, the 
diadem placed on his brows, and the sword of the 
ancient kinsfs o-irded about his waist : Eberhard then 
handed him the sacred lance, and was recompensed 
for his noble generosity by the grant of the duchy of 
Franconia, with the palatinate of the Rhine. Henry 
I. the Fowler thus become the founder of the Saxon 
line, which furnished five soyereigns in 106 years 
(918-1024). 

The Saxon- Family ; Hen"iiy the Fowler (918- 
936). — The German lords had just put themselves un- 
der an absolute master. This the dukes of Suabia and 
Bavaria were the first to perceive ; then followed the 
turn of the Lorrainers, whom Henry had easily Avitii- 
drawn from Charles the Simple. Then, turning his 
arms towards the frontiers, he founded the marches of 
Schleswig and compelled the king of the Danes to 
respect the Christian missionaries ; the majTches of 
Brandenburg and Misnia were founded to oj^pose the 
northeastern Slavs. These marches were frontier pro- 
vinces, defended at every point with strongliolds, 
which soon attracted a sturdy people, who settled 
around the Avails and were governed by a marcliio 
(marquis). The Czechs of Bohemia, under Duke 
Wenceslaus, were forced to pay tribute to Henry, who 
had made their country a new marquisate against the 



Third Epoch. 163 

terrible Hungarians. These ravagers had imposed 
upon the king of Germany a truce and a tribute of 
seven years. Tlie latter took advantage of the truce to 
summon a tenth of all the Saxons to his standard, to 
exercise his cavalry in tournaments, and to inure his 
soldiers to war, while he at the same time encouraged 
agriculture. The seventh year, instead of the usual 
tribute, he sent to Arpad's son, Zoltan, a mangy dog 
witli ears and tail cut off. At once two Hungarian 
armies invaded Germany. Henry met them at Merse- 
burg, and slew 36,000 upon that decisive day (933). 
The victor repaired the ruins made by the Hunga- 
rians, restored the eastern marquisate founded by 
Charlemagne, and endeavored to consolidate his 
work by securing the election of his son, Otlio the 
Great. 

Otho L, Kikg oe Geemaky (936). — The new 
sovereign began his reign by the pomp of his coro- 
nation ; the three archbishops of Mayence, Treves, 
and Cologne, the four dukes of Franconia, Suabia, 
Bavaria, and Lorraine — all were there to fulfil hono- 
rary offices held by each one. Otho was ambitious to 
exercise real power over all in his dominions, and 
to have his supremacy acknowledged by neighboring 
countries, with an influence equal to Charlemagne's. 
He made obedience certain by dispossessing either by 
law or by violence the former incumbents and bestow- 
ing their goods upon his near kinsmen ; by placing 
near each duke a count palatine charged to look out 
for the king's interests ; and by conferring upon 
bishops the temporal jurisdiction of their episcopal 
cities. To enforce the respect of his neighbors he 
avenged the death of St. "Wenceslaus of Bohemia 
upon the person of Boleslaus the Cruel, who finally 



164 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

paid homage ; he also exacted fealty of Harold, king 
of Denmark ; he made himself arbiter of France by 
giving his two daughters in marriage to King Louis 
d'Outrcmcr and the duke of France. To attain an 
inlluence which might be felt throughout Europe, he 
took an active part in Italian aUairs and received the 
inii^erial crown at Rome. 

Sec. 2. Italy and the Western Empire (888-962) ; 

the KJoinjjetitors for the Emjnre ; First Italian 
Monarchy (888-924). 

Scarcely was Charles the Fat deposed than tv\^o 
Italian princes, Guy of Spoleto and Berenger of 
Friuli, both on their mother's side great-grandsons 
of Charlemagne, disputed the title of king of Italy 
and emperor. For a time Berenger j^revajled, but he 
was overcome and driven away. His rival was 
crowned emperor by Stephen Y. (891), and associ- 
ated with himself his son Lambert, whom he saw 
crowned by Pope Formosus (894) before his ow^n 
death. Soon afterwards followed Arnulf of Ger- 
many, crowned by the same Formosus and opposed 
to Lambert (89G). Three years later the imperial 
throne was vacant, at which juncture Berenger reap- 
peared, and j'cceived at Pa7ia the iron crown of Italy, 
which Louis, king of Cis-Juran Burgundy, a grand- 
son on his mother's side of the Emperor Louis II., 
disputed. The latter claimant was hailed by the 
powerful as king of Ital}^ and cro^vned emperor of 
the AYest by Benedict VI. (900). Louis III. did not 
long enjoy his dignity. Berenger took hmi captive 
and put out his eyes (905). He survived this cruel 
torture more than twenty years, but w^as of little use 
to the empire. There then remained Berenger, who 



Third Epoch, 165 

was engaged in a struggle with the Hungarians and 
the Saracens, but above all with the feudal barons, 
who Avere less easily overcome than outside enemies. 
This prince enjoyed some intervals of prosperity ; 
being solemnly crowned emperor by John X. (915), 
he accompanied that pope, with all the Italian lords, 
to the Garigliano, where he utterly defeated the 
fierce Saracens, who had occupied that post for 
thirty years and thought themselves invincible. Ber- 
enger would perhaps have reigned as emperor over 
all Italy, had not the jealous nobles whom he had en- 
riched assassinated him on Christmas night (924). 

Eaces x^j) Disti:n^ct Peii^cipalities of Italy. 
— A really national monarchy seemed out of the 
question at that time in Italy. Before the tenth 
century neither the Ostrogoths, Lombards, nor even 
the Frankish Carlovingians had done anything to 
blend the diiferent races of the Peninsula into one 
people. On the contrary, each of the conquerors 
had done his best to widen the difference between 
races and provinces. The dukes of Friuli and 
Spoleto, the marquises of Ivrea, of Tuscany, and of 
Camerino, the princes of Beneventum, of Naj^les, of 
Capua, and of Salerno, cared only to be absolutely 
independent, even of the emperors of the West. The 
Greeks of Bari, Tarentum, and the southern coasts 
obeyed none but their catapan. Some parts of the 
western coast and all Sicily belonged to the Saracens. 
A small number of cities, as Pavia, Milan, Pisa, alone 
acknowledged the king of Italy ; Rome and the cities 
of the patrimony of St. Peter paid no obedience to 
the emperor until he had been crowned by the 
sovereign pontiff. Even in these cities, and in 
Rome itself, strongholds were erected in which dwelt 



166 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

tyrants who oppressed the popes and thrust their 
creatures, their near kinsmen, or their youngest 
children into the chair of St. Peter. 

Providence permitted these trials to show that the 
government of the Church depends, not like others, 
upon the virtues or vices of its representatives ; it 
has also permitted, nay, willed, that the popes sliould 
in some way enjoy an indeiDcndence that would en- 
tirely remove them from all mistrust. 

The Italian Mois'ARCHY dukikg the Vacan"cy 
OF THE Empire (924-962). — To rid themselves of the 
Emperor Berenger the Italian barons had appealed to 
Eudolph II., king of Trans- Juran Burgundy, who 
helped them against the Hungarians. Having hailed 
him as king of Italy, they regretted their -choice, 
and within two years set up Hugh, administrator of 
Cis-Juran Burgundy. It was not long till he was 
more hated than his predecessors. But they could 
not so easily dispose of him. They recalled Rudolph 
and fomented insurrection, hut for twenty years 
Hugh ruled Italy with a heavy hand. At last Ber- 
enger, Marquis of Ivrea, whose mother was daughter 
to the Emperor Berenger, succeeded after several 
attempts in winning the agreement of a great num- 
ber of the barons, bishops, and cities in his support. 
Hugh then consented to abdicate the throne, but not 
unconditionally. *' I have done much evil," said he 
in the assembly of Milan. *' I no longer merit the 
honor of ruling you ; but behold my son Lothaire, of 
whom you cannot complain." This unexpected ap- 
peal set aside tlie claims of Berenger, who was ap- 
pointed tutor of the young king. Lothaire and his 
consort, Adelaide, daughter of Rudolph II., received 
the iron crown (945). The death of Lothaire five 



Third Epoch. 167 

years afterwards raised suspicions of poisoning 
against Berenger II., who, causing himself to be 
23roclaimed king, began to ill-treat Adelaide because 
she courageously refused the hand of his son Adalbert. 
Despoiled of her possessions, dragged by horses, shut 
up in a strong castle, this virtuous queen excited the 
sympathy of the Italians and found an avenger in 
Otho the Great, who crossed the Alps to her rescue. 

Sec. 3. The Empire of the West transferred to the 
Kings of Germany (962). 

Intervention of Otho the Great in Italy 
(954). — Otho aimed to imitate Charlemagne. In- 
deed, there was something analogous in the circum- 
stances of these two princes when crossing the Alps : 
both were already famous, jDowerful, and res2)ected at 
home ; both came as liberators ; both were to be 
crowned by the pope emperors of the Eomans after 
an interregnum in the Western Empire. In his first 
journey to Eome, Otho, four years a widower, es- 
poused Adelaide, and together they were crowned 
at Pavia. But a formidable 023position broke out in 
the family of Otho, so that after leaving the title of 
king of Italy to Berenger II. and his son Adalbert, 
on condition of a slight homage, he made haste back to 
Germany to attack his rebel son Ludolph, his son-in- 
law Conrad, and his brother Henry, who had instigat- 
ed the barons, and called in the Hungarians. Otho 
spent two years in re-establishing his authority in 
Germany. He diminished the power of the great 
vassals, increased the number of the lesser ones, and 
organized a powerful army. Then he marched against 
the Hungarians, whom he encountered August 10 
(955) on the plains of the Lech, near Augsburg. 



168 History of the Middle Ages. 

It is said that one hundred thousand Hungarians 
were left dead on the battle-field. This victory com- 
pleted that of Merseburg. Otho was more fortunate 
than his father. He firmly established the eastern 
marquisate, knoAvn thenceforth as Austria, and 
which the Hungarians refrained from crossing. A 
victory over the Slavs of the Elbe secured his 
northern frontier. His embassy to the caliph Abd- 
er-Eahman III. softened tlie lot of the Spanish 
Christians under the Ommiades of Cordova, and 
recalled memories of Charlemagne and Harun-ar- 
Eashid. 

Otiio Crowi^ed Emperor of the Eomaxs (Feb- 
ruary 2, 9G2). — Octavian, the son and successor of 
Count Alberic of Tusculum, and already master of 
Eome with the title of patrician, on the death of 
the venerable Agapetus II. had himself elected pope 
under the name of John XII., being the first pope 
that changed his name on his accession. All of his 
successors have followed his example in this. This 
pope was young, and perhaps on changing his name 
and dignity still retained the thoughts and manners 
of a secular prince. Be this as it may, the internal 
government of Eome was greatly benefited by his 
administration. The pope wished to extend these 
benefits of his administration to all the duchy of 
Eome, to the Pentapolis, and to the exarchate ; but 
Berenger II. occupied the two last-named j^rovinces, 
menaced Eome, and oppressed the rest of Italy. 
John invited Otho to Eome to receive the imperial 
crown and to deliver the Holy Church. Lords, 
bishops, and abbots joined their supplications to the 
pope's. Otho hastened to Milan, where Berenger and 
his son Adalbert were formally deposed. Then he 



Third Epoch. 169 

made his entrance into Eome. The Eomans swore 
fidelity to Otho. John XII. promised not to contract 
an alliance with the enemies of the emperor. The 
emperor, for himself and his successors, renounced 
all claim to interfere in the jurisdiction of the Holy 
Eoman Church, and solemnly promised to abstain 
from it, ^'unless required by him who at the time 
holds the government of the Holy Church." Otho 
was then crowned emperor, being the first who held 
the title since Berenger II. (962). Thus was the 
Eoman Empire a second time renewed in the West 
after a vacancy of thirty-eight years. From France 
and Italy it passed to Germany, where it existed till 
the opening of the nineteenth century (1806). 

COXPLICT BETWEEI^ THE POPE AND THE NEW EM- 

PEROK. — No sooner had Otho left Eome than John 
broke his oath and took part with Berenger. The 
emperor immediately returned to Eome and John 
fled. The Eomans were forced to take a new oath 
not to acknowledge any pope but such as should hold 
the see at the will of Otho. A council was held at 
Eome, to which John was summoned, but refusing to 
appear, was accused of several crimes, condemned 
and deposed. This proceeding was certainly un- 
canonical and invalid. Otho had Leo VIII. elected 
to the papal chair and again left Eome. John im- 
mediately returned to his see and took vengeance 
upon his opponents. He died soon after, some say 
in the very commission of a crime ; but this is now 
generally rejected by all impartial historians as the 
invention of his enemies. The Eomans, far from ac- 
knowledging the anti-pope, elected Benedict V. ; but 
the emperor, returning to Eome, exiled Benedict to 
Germany and reinstated Leo, who died soon after. 



170 History OF TEE Middle Ages. 

Otho gave liim as successor John XIII. , wliom the 
Romans expelled, regardless of the emperor's ven- 
geance. The latter had returned to Germany after 
casting Berenger into a dungeon and putting Adal- 
bert to a shameful flight; but the imjDcrial army 
nearly perished by an epidemic while on its march. 
Otho returned with a new army to Italy to avenge 
John XIII., to crown his son emperor of the West, 
and to secure for him the hand of the Greek princess 
Theophania. He returned to Germany and died soon 
afterwards (973). 

Otho merited his surname of Great by his bril- 
liant talents, valor, firmness, and his zeal for 
religion ; but, unhapjjily, his ideas of religious duty 
were at fault in the essential point of the sovereign 
pontiff's authority. 

Soi^ AKD GEAKDSOiq- OF Otiio (973-1002).— Xot- 
withstanding the disturbances of Henry, duke of 
Bavaria, and the claims of Lothaire, king of France, 
the reign of Otho II. (973-983) was marked by great 
prosperity in Germany. But in Italy fortune proved 
fickle to Otho. He had convoked at Pavia a num- 
ber of the discontented nobles, and caused them all 
to be massacred at a banquet to which he had invited 
them. After this sanguinary deed, which made him 
hated by the Italians, he allowed himself to be led by 
the counsels of his wife, Theophania, Avho wished 
the Greek provinces of Italy for her dower. On 
this pretext he raised a small army, mostly of Ita- 
lians, to seize the Greek principalities and the cities 
of the south. Several successes encouraged him, 
but a body of Saracens, in the service of the Byzan- 
tine catapan, having surprised and dispersed his 
troops at Basentello, near the gulf of Squillace, he 



Third Epoch. 171 

"was turned into ridicule by the Italians, He refus- 
ed to go back to Germany, and died in Italy of grief, 
or poison, after securing the election of his son, 
Otho, not yet four years old. The difficulties arising 
in Germany from the minority of Otho III., and 
from the accession of the Capetians to the throne of 
France, were settled by the Empresses Theophania 
and Adelaide and the archbishop of Mayence. At 
the ao-e of fifteen Otho went to Rome to be crowned 
emperor by Gregory V., his kinsman, and the first 
German pope. For several years the popes had 
been oppressed by Crescentius, the leader of an Ita- 
lian faction hostile to foreigners. A new rising 
against Gregory V. brought back the emj^eror, who 
seized the castle of San Angelo and jDut Crescentius 
to death. After Gregory V., Otho secured the elec- 
tion of the learned Gerbert, who had been one of his 
preceptors, and who took the name of Sylvester II., 
being the first French pope. The emperor entered 
into the broad views of the new pope, and conferred 
the title of king upon Boleslaus the Brave, duke of 
Poland, and upon St. Stephen, prince of Hungary. 
Perhaps he might have carried out the plan of the 
Christian re]3ublic, conceived by Sylvester II. , had he 
not prematurely died when only twenty-two (1002). 

St. Hexry, Experor (1002-1024).— German 
royalty, although strengthened by its assumption 
of the imperial dignity, remained elective by right ; 
yet, in point of fact, it did not depart from the 
reigning house except in default of a direct heir. At 
the death of Otho III. the house of Saxony was 
represented by Henry, duke of Bavaria. Although 
his father and his grandfather, both descendants of 
Henry I., were constantly involved in quarrels, he 



172 History of the Middle Ages, 

liiniself was conciliatory in all that did not concern 
religion and morals. He was elected in Germany 
under the name of Henry 11. , in s^nte of the oppo- 
sition of two lords, who, however, soon took the 
oath of allegiance. But beyond the Alps, Hardoin, 
Diarquis of Ivrea, insisted uj^ton his claims to the 
crown of Italy, notwithstanding he was defeated 
and that his rival was crowned by Benedict VIII. 
(1014). Hardoin died in 1015, and the emperor was 
enabled to curb the ambition of the first king of 
Poland, to favor the apostolate of the first king of 
Hungary, who had become his brother-in-law, and 
to aid the pope, with Xorman help, to repulse the 
Saracen pirates that infested Southern Italy. The 
greatest glory of the emperor was won in promoting 
piety throughout the realm by his example and by 
the foundation of religious institutions, and in con- 
tributing with all his poAver to spread the faith 
among the Slavs, Scandinavians, and Hungarians. 

At the opening of the eleventh century royalty 
was adorned with a piety equal to the other bril- 
liant qualities it displayed. Sylvester II. Avas pope, 
St. Henry was emperor of Germany, St. Stephen 
reigned in Hungary, Boleslaus the Brave in Poland, 
Canute the Great in Denmark and England, St. 
Olaf in Norway, Sancho the Great in Spain, St. 
Vladimir was grand duke of Russia, and the pious 
King Pol)ert was sovereign of France. St. Henry 
died 1024. His virgin spouse, St. Cunegonde, sur- 
vived him. 

The rRANCOXiA:N- PA:\riLY (1024-1125).— The 
family of Saxony ended with Henry II., having 
given five sovereigns to Germany, four of whom were 
emperors. The eight German dukes, convened in 



TniuD ErocH. 173 

the electoral college with their rear-yassals, spent 
two months in the effort to choose a king, and at last 
decided in favor of the least powerful among them- 
selves. He was duke of Franconia, and bore the 
name of the first king elected after the extinction of 
the Carlovingians, Conrad. He was a descendant of 
a daughter of Otho the Great and a nephew of Pope 
G-regory V. This new family gave four emperors, 
and occupied the imperial throne of Germany one 
hundred and one years. 

Conrad II. (1024-1039), surnamed the Salic, 
astonished his electors, for he made himself sove- 
reign in fact as well as in name, and exacted obedi- 
ence of his vassals, including the duke of Bohemia. 
In Italy he formally invested the first Norman count 
of Aversa, after receiving at Rome the imperial crown 
from the hands of John XIX. Everywhere he 
counterpoised the power of the great vassals by the 
perhaps excessive rights that he conferred upon the 
vavasors, or inferior vassals. On the death of his 
uncle, RudoljDh III., he inherited the kingdom of 
the two Burgundies (1032). 

The successor of Conrad II. was his only son, 
Henry III. (1029-1056), surnamed the Black. 
Though he had no competitor, he was called upon 
to quell disturbances in Burgundy, then recently 
annexed to the empire, and in Lorraine and Hun- 
gary, after which he passed into Italy, not so much 
to restrain the aggressive and restless Normans as to 
restore order in Rome. The Papacy was disgraced in 
the person of Benedict IX., who had been thrust 
into the chair of St. Peter by his relatives, the counts 
of Tusculum, when he was but ten or twelve years 
old. It is true that in 1044 Benedict abdicated a 



174 History of the Middle Ages. 

dignity wliicli lie luicl dishonored for eleven years. 
Three claimants appeared ; two of them were declared 
usurpers and intruders, the third, Gregory VI., con- 
fessed himself guilty of simony and laid aside the 
pontifical insignia. Henry then had the bishop of 
Bamberg elected pope (Clement II.), and with his 
consort, Agnes of Poitiers, was crowned by him on 
Christmas day. After Clement II., the Emperor 
Henry HI. designated Damasus II., then St. Leo, 
then Victor 11. The choice Avas good in these cases, 
because the emperor was good. But the time was to 
come when in order to ensure a good choice all secu- 
lar influence would have to be withdrawn from the 
election of the popes ; for the successor of Henry 
III. was his notorious son, Henry IV. Happily the 
celebrated Hildebrand was then cardinal, and soon 
became pope under the name of Gregory VII. 

Sec. 4. Cis-Juran and Trans- Juran Burgundy; Kings 
of Aries (887-1032). 
Fou:n^datiox, Coalition, and Dissolution. — 
Among the states formed out of the wreck of the 
Carlovingian empire must be mentioned the two 
Burgundies, at first separate and independent until 
933, then united for a century only, when they were 
incorporated Avith the German empire. Cis-Juran 
Burgundy, comprising the yallcy of the Rhone, with 
Aries for its capital, had but three kings : Boson, a 
son-in-law of the Emperor Louis II.; his son, the 
Emperor Louis III., surnamcd the Blind, from the 
cruelty inflicted on him by Berenger ; finally, Hugh 
of Provence, an usurper who, to secure the posses- 
sion of Italy, basely abandoned the Mediterranean 
coast and the Alps to the Saracens, while he ceded 



Third Epocil 175 

the rest of the kingdom to his rival, Rudolph II., 
king of Trans-Juran Burgundy (933). The lat- 
ter Burgundian kingdom, founded in 888 by Ru- 
dolph Welf, comprised at first a part of present Swit- 
zerland and of Franche-Comte, but after the cession 
of the Cis-Juran its extent was greater, and it was 
known as the kingdom of Aries, without, however, 
attaining to great power. This dynasty offers us but 
four kings, the least insignificant of whom was Conrad 
the Peaceful (937-993). By a successful stratagem 
he set those scourges of his kingdom, the Saracens 
and the Hungarians, against each other, and then 
with his little army he gathered the fruits of the 
victory (940). The kingdom of Aries represented 
no distinct nationality ; its ephemeral existence, fol- 
lowed by a nomii^al submission to a foreign power, 
explains the rise of the sovereign counties of Savoy, 
Provence, Dauphiny, ISTeufchatel, and the ecclesias- 
tical principalities of Lyons, Besangon, Geneva, 
Basle, and St. Maurice d'Agaune. 



CHAPTER IV. 
SPAIN, THE ARABS, AND THE GREEKS. 

Heroic struggle in Spain between the Christians, who grow in 
power, and the Arabs, who are losing their warhke spirit 
and are being narrowed in their limits little by little. The 
Greek Christians lose all their advantages. 

Sec. 1. Vicissitudes of the Struggle between the 
Arabs and Christians of Spain. 

SiiTGULAR Altern"Atioxs. — The religious and poli- 
tical war of eight hundred years of which Spain was 
the theatre offers a singular spectacle ; for two cen- 



176 History of the Middle Ages. 

turies great Moslem princes always appeared just 
when the power of the Christian princes seemed on 
the wane. Alfonso II., the Chaste, had Just died 
when Abd-er-Eahman II. appeared and defeated the 
successors of Alfonso, retaking provinces, wresting 
Barcelona from the king of France, and persecuting 
the Christians in his dominions. Then Alfonso III., 
the Great (861-911), avenged his predecessors by 
crossing the Douro, gaining brilliant victories, which 
opened' his way to the Tagus, fortifying Coimbra, 
Zamora, and Burgos. During the intervals of vic- 
tories Alfonso built palaces, erected the celebrated 
basilica of St. James at Compostella, or wrote for 
the guidance of his successors the history of the 
heroic wars of the peninsula. 

Two GKEAT Caliphs and Al-Maksur the Gen- 
eral. — The Arabs had become dispirited when the 
brilliant Abd-er-Eahman III. (911-9G1) inherited 
the caliphate, the very year in which the great Al- 
fonso resigned the throne to his unworthy sons. 
Abd-er-Eahman, victorious in the vale of Jonquera, 
crossed the Pyrenees, pillaged Gascony, besieged, 
defended, and besieged anew the stronghold of Za- 
mora. He had met brave adversaries in the kings 
of Navarre, newly founded, and of Leon. This last 
was a new kingdom, whose rulers were the succes- 
sors of Pelagius, and were generally in alliance with 
Navarre. The caliph found less resistance in Africa 
from his co-religionists. lie dispossessed the Edris- 
sites of all the country called Maghreb (Morocco and 
Algeria). The last twenty years of his reign he 
spent in i:)eace. During this time he formed rela- 
tions with the Greek emperors and with Otlio the 
Great, enjoying his immense riches, his superb 



Third Epoch. 177 

palaces, and his glory ; realizing at the same time 
the nothingness of human grandeur. '' I have now 
reigned fifty years/' he writes in his Memorial, 
which has come down to us ; ^' I am beloved by my 
subjects, feared by my enemies, respected by my 
allies. I have acquired and enjoyed riches, glory, 
power, and pleasure, and yet in all my life I can 
count but fourteen days of true happiness. man ! 
put not your trust in this world." This great 
prince needed only to be a Christian. His son, Ha- 
kem II. (961-976), greatly delighted in learning and 
learned men ; under him schools, the fine arts, and 
commerce flourished. Seeing that his subjects dis- 
regarded the Koran's prohibition of the use of wine, 
he had two-thirds of the vines of Spain torn up by 
the roots. 

Fall of the Caliphate of Cordova (1031). — 
With Abd-er-Eahman and Ilakem fell the personal 
power of the caliphs. But the effeminate Hesham 
II., or Issam (976-1008), was sustained by his brave 
general Mohammed, surnamed Al-Mansur or Al- 
manzor (the Victorious), who fought and won fifty- 
six battles in twenty-two years. Overcome for the 
first time at Calatanazor by the united armies of the 
count of Castile and the kings of Leon and Na- 
varre, Al-Mansur starved himself in order not to 
survive what he called his dishonor (998). Thence- 
forth intestine wars, revolutions in the palace, suc- 
cess of Christian armies, led to the deposition of 
Hesham III. and the final downfall of the Western 
caliphate (1031). It was prosperous almost to the 
verge of its destruction. 

Two Great Christia^^ Kixgs axd the Cid. — 
The Christians in their turn flourished under two 



178 History of the Middle Ages. 

great kings and an incomparable captain. Sancho 
the Great, king of Xavarre (1000-1035), had by 
conquests and alliances succeeded in uniting under 
his family all Christian Spain. Had this prince not 
divided his dominions among his four sons, Mussul- 
man rule in Spain would have been at an end. 
One of his sons, Ferdinand the Great, first king 
of Castile (1035-10G5), when dying committed the 
same imprudence, but at least during his thirty 
years' reign he had considerably extended his king- 
dom at the expense of the petty Mohammedan 
kings who shared the heritage of the Ommiades. 
Yiseu, Lamego, Coimbra, Gormaz, and hundreds of 
other strongholds Avere taken or retaken ; Zamora 
was fortified anew ; the Moorish kings of Toledo, 
Saragossa, and Seville were made tributary ; such 
were the results of the conquests of Ferdinand, of 
his three sons, and of Eodrigo or Euy Diaz de Bivar, 
surnamed the Cid, also El Campeador, the Cham- 
pion. Tliis immortal hero, whom Ferdinand dubbed 
knight, and who was a model of all yirtues, served 
tlie succeeding kings, notwithstanding their ingra- 
titude ; for almost sixty years he constantly defeated 
all their enemies. He ended his exploits by the 
conquest of the kingdom of Valencia, the posses- 
sion of which was guaranteed to him as an appan- 
age. 

Anarchy amois"g the Arabs. — In Spain, in the 
place of the caliphate of Cordova, there arose a score 
of petty kingdoms, which were continually warring 
among themselves. In Africa and Asia independent 
dynasties were overthrowing one another or infring- 
ing upon the liberty of the inefficient caliphs of Bag- 
dad. To increase the difficulty anti-social sects, 



Third Epoch. 179 

sword in hand, spread tlieir abominable doctrines. 
The Karmatians, who denied a future life and j^ro- 
fessed the most brutal communism, lorded- it over 
Arabia during a century ; their chief, taking j^osses- 
sion of Mecca, slew fifty thousand inoffensive inhabi- 
tants and carried away the black stone ; in order to 
pollute the temple he interred three thousand corpses 
within it (929). The secret society of the Ismailians, 
whose maxim was ^^^NTothing is true and everything 
is lawful," shielded themselves under the name of 
Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed and wife of Ali ; 
this sect had established a separate caliphate at Cairo. 
One of their caliphs, Hakem (996-1021), w^ent so far 
as to have himself adored as God ; after his death his 
worshippers w^ere known as the Assassins of the 
Mountain, and are at present represented by the 
Druses of Lebanon. Anarchy was rampant among 
all the Mohammedans. Soon, however, the western 
Arabs received a temporary impulse from the Almo- 
ravides and Almohades. The eastern Arabs, too, 
were reanimated by the Turks wdio, just before the 
Crusades, infused fresh energy into Islam. 

Sec. 2. The Greek Empire; Plwtius and Michael 
Cerularius. 

Political akd Eeligious Weakness li^ the East. 

— The Greeks might have jirofited by Moslem decline 
to recover their former provinces, and regenerate 
them by Christianity. The Kazares were their faith- 
ful allies ; the Bulgarians were just embracing Chris- 
tianity ; the Hungarians were gone to ravage the 
"western parts of Europe. But the Greeks were given 
up to dynastic revolutions, their emperors were rarely 
men of ability, and the little of Christianity that re- 



180 History of the Middle Ages, 

mained, far from benefiting those outside of the em- 
pire, was degenerating into heresy, corruption, and 
at last into that unhappy schism which engulfed the 
whole nation. 

Uekesy succeeded by Schism ; Piiotius. — As 
soon as the orthodox prince Michael I. was deposed 
(813), the senseless heresy of the Iconoclasts revived 
under Leo the Armenian, Michael the Stammerer, and 
Theophilus. The rude hand of the Mohammedans, 
in the war of Armorium, vvas the instrument of 
Heaven's vengeance on the latter prince. His widow, 
Theodora, imitating Irene, restored peace to the 
Church with the help of the pious patriarch Igna- 
tius, a son of the Emperor Michael I. But Theodora 
beheld the growth of a monster in her son Michael 
III. (842-8G7), justly surnamed the Drunkard, and 
n-otorious for cowardice, his love of the circus, and 
his utter disregard and disrespect for everything holy. 
He had been drawn into his evil course by his uncle 
Bardas ; both were fit agents to plunge the hapless 
church of Constantinople into still greater misfor- 
tune than it had yet undergone. Theodora was ex- 
iled ; Ignatius deposed and succeeded by the eunuch, 
Photius, doubtless the most learned man of his age, 
but also the most crafty, the most courtly and ambi- 
tious. This man, in disregard of the canonical rule, 
and without even the form of an election, was conse- 
crated by the bishop of Syracuse, and took posses- 
sion of the patriarchal chair of Constantinople on 
Christmas day (857). The great Pope Nicholas I. 
protested against the intrusion ; Photius attacked 
the Eoman Church, reproaching it with having in- 
serted a word (filioquc) in the Creed, tolerating fast- 
ing on Saturdays, using strangled meats, and other 



Third Epoch, 181 

irregularities of this nature. He was anxious to di- 
yert attention from liis usurpation, but the pope con- 
tinued his protest ; still the pontifical complaints 
were not heeded till after the assassination of Bardas 
and Michael by Basil the Macedonian, who rein- 
stated St. Ignatius, imprisoned Photius, and con- 
Toked an oecumenical council (8G9-870) at Constan- 
tinople, by the authority of Adrian II. Unfortu- 
nately, Basil allowed himself to be flattered by Pho- 
tius, who had forged a pedigree in which the low- 
born emperor figured as a descendant of Tiridates, 
King of Armenia. After the death of Ignatius, Pho- 
tius, more arrogant than ever, was again placed in 
the patriarchal see, whence ho was again driven out 
by the Emperor Leo the Philosopher, the successor 
of Basil. 

The Macedo2n-iait Dynasty (8G7-1057).— The 
son of a Macedonian farmer, Basil was the founder 
of a dynasty which occupied the throne for two hun- 
dred years. Basil I. repaired the disorders of the 
preceding reign ; he also gained several advantages 
over the Saracens in Asia, and spread the terror of 
his name as far as tlie Euphrates. But a century 
passed before one of the family, Basil II., proved 
worth of such an ancestor. And these two alone of 
that family were worthy to wear the crown. Leo 
the Philosopher and Constantino Porphyrogenitus, a 
son and grandson of Basil L, studied, spoke, and 
wrote much concerning laws {'basilicas), administra- 
tion, military tactics, and diplomacy, but governed 
ill, and were unable to defend the empire against the 
Arabs, Bulgarians, and Eussians. If these enemies 
were oftener disarmed by gold than with steel the 
fact must be attributed to Komanus I., Lecapenus, 



182 History of the Middle Ages. 

the father-in-law and colleague of Constantine. Their 
successor, Eomanus the Younger, a parricide and 
debauchee, had excellent generals in the two Pho- 
cases. His children were Basil 11. , Constantine 
VIII., Theophania, who married 0th o II., and Anna, 
who, by marrying St. Vladimir, contributed much to 
the conversion of the Eussians. 

Transient Sple^-dor op the Greek Empire 
(963-1019).— The general Nicei^horus Phocas had 
retaken the Island of Crete from the Saracens during 
the reign of Eomanus II. While Basil and Constan- 
tine, sons and successors of Eomanus, were in their 
minority he had roughly handled the Bulgarians, and, 
carrying the war into Asia, had vanquished the Sara- 
cens. Proclaimed emperor (963) along with the two 
young princes, he conquered the island of Cyprus, 
Cilicia, and a 2^art of Syria as far as the Euj^hrates, 
while his general, John Zimisces, seized upon Antioch. 
The latter, profiting by the murmurs against Nicepho- 
rus, assassinated him, usurped the throne, and strove 
to obliterate his crime by a wise, firm, and glorious 
government. He defeated the Eussians in Bulgaria ; 
several campaigns in Syria, against the Arabs, won 
him the surname of Conqueror of the East. He was 
poisoned by a miserable eunuch (976). At last Basil 
11. reigned alone, unrestrained by his brother Constan- 
tine. He was at first harassed by several ambitious 
generals ; but he put down their revolts and used their 
talents against the Saracens in Italy, the islands of 
the Mediterranean, and in Asia. He reserved to 
himself the war against the Bulgarians, which, after 
twenty years of campaigns, ended in the annihilation 
of the kingdom. He also took possession of the 
Crimea, so as to check the Eussian advance in that 



Third Epoch, 183 

direction. All these countries were incorj^orated 
into the emiDire, which at the death of Basil (1025) 
was greatly extended and had recovered much of its 
outside splendor. 

Declii^e ; Michael Cerularius. — From the 
death of Basil II. to the accession of the family of 
Comnenus there elapsed fifty-six years dishonored by 
the shameful old age of Constantino VIII., by the dis- 
orders of his two daughters and their crowned favo- 
rites, by the success of the Seljukian Turks, and 
especially by the consummation of the schism of 
Photius under the patriarch Michael Cerularius. 
After the second deposition of Photius the union 
between the Church of Rome and Constantinople had 
been restored. But Michael Cerularius, raised to the 
patriarchate in 1013, allowed his narrow mind to be 
filled with the paltry accusations formerly levelled by 
Photius against the Latin Church ; and on his own 
part he added to the charges of Photius that of the 
use of unleavened bread in our holy mysteries ; he 
also censured ecclesiastical celibacy and the suspen- 
sion of the Alleluia at certain times of the year. 
For these reasons he excommunicated the sovereign 
pontiff and the bishops and churches of the West. 
Pope St. Leo IX. despatched legates to Constanti- 
nople, where they were favorably enougli received hy 
the Emperor Constantino Monomachus. In vain 
they strove to win back Cerularius to better senti- 
ments. The obstinacy and pride of the patriarch 
and the timid attitude of the emperor forced the 
legates to excommunicate Cerularius formally. They 
placed the act of his condemnation upon the altar of 
St. Sophia, shook the dust from their feet, and de- 
parted (July 16, 1054). From that day, although 



184 IIlSTOR Y OF THE MiDDLE A GES, 

several emperors, bishops, and cliurclies have indi- 
vidually renewed communion with Home, the patri- 
archal church of Constantinople has remained sepa- 
rated up to our OAvn time. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE CHURCH AND FEUDALISM ; CONVERSION 
OF THE SCANDINAVIANS AND SLAVS. 

In spite of the embarrassments of its hierarchy the Church 
protects learninj^, completes the conversion of the northern 
nations, and greatly promotes the conversion of the East. 

S3C. 1. The Catholic Hierarchy, particularly in the 
Tenth Century. 

Trials of the Papacy. — Till the end of the ninth 
century the Papacy remained on the level to which 
it had been raised by the new order of things and the 
establishment of the temporal power. The popes 
"were independent at Rome, and there crowned the 
em2:>erors, whose arm w^as devoted to the service of 
the Church against evil-doers and foreign enemies. 
The emperor upheld the pope and aided him, when 
necessary, in the exercise of his temporal power, and 
the pope in return lent the emperor, as occasion re- 
quired, the support of the ecclesiastical censures. A 
striking example of the harmony between the two 
powers is found during the pontificate of Nicholas the 
Great (858-867). On the day of the enthronement of 
Nicholas, Louis held the bridle of the pope's horse. 
He compelled the Romans to submit to the pope ; he 
attacked the Saracens that menaced Rome ; he sanc- 
tioned the legates who Avent to Constantinople to de- 



Third Epoch. 185 

pose Pliotius, and those who Avent to forbid Lothaire 
to i)ut away his lawful wife. And on his joart the 
pope sustained the emperor against all such as set liis 
titles at naught, or who encroached upon his rights 
over Provence and Lorraine. 

But after the pontilicate of Formosus (896) began 
a long series of troubles for the Papacy ; and if it 
came out victorious it was solely because it is of 
divine institution. The temporal privileges of the 
sovereign pontificate aroused the envy or the greed 
of the more powerful families who were desirous to 
place their own children in the apostolic seat ; tlie 
weakness, discredit, or susj^ension of the imperial 
power favored the establishment, even in Kome, of 
an overreaching feudalism which affected the pa2:)al 
elections ; while later the too officious intervention 
of the German emperors in the choice and the spiri- 
tual government of the popes contributed but seldom 
to the general good of the Church, to the reform of 
abuses, or to the sj^lendor of the Papacy. It is true 
that to these emperors was due the elevation to the 
chair of St. Peter of a Gregory V., a Sylvester II., a 
Leo IX. But it was through their influence, too, that 
popes were made who w^ere at least as unfit as those 
for whose choice the marquises of Tuscany and the 
counts of Tusculum are answerable. Yet this evil 
influence of princes and royalty did not prevent the 
nomination of saintly popes like Leo VII., Stephen 
VIII., Agapetus II. God watched over his Church 
in the tenth century as he does in our own. 

The Xew Maxich.^^axs. — One of the most evi- 
dent marks of the special providence watching over 
the Church is that during the ninth century, so de- 
cried by certain authors, no new heresy is recorded. 



18G History OF THE Middle Ages. 

Even liio schism of Photius was lulled. True, the 
ancient, hideous heresy of the ManichaBans continued 
to spread quietly after the manner of a secret society. 
The infamous j^rogeny of Manes and of the Mohamme- 
dan sects were prosecuted in Asia Minor in the ninth 
century, but evaded the law and disguised themselves 
under the name of Paulicians. But in the tenth 
century they appeared in Europe — first in Bulgaria. 
They soon infested the centre and the north of France, 
where they corrupted morals and railed against the 
hierarchy. Later they appeared in the south of 
France under the name of Albigenses ; but their 
very excesses were the occasion of a renewal of rigor 
in ecclesiastical discipline, and a more faithful obser- 
vance of the ancient canons. 

Abuses amoj^g the Clergy. — The great prelates, 
bishops, or abbots, having become temporal lords, 
bound by liege homage to a lay suzerain and to cer- 
tain civil and political functions, being, moreover, 
mostly scions of noble houses, were but too liable to 
give themselves to a secular life, to the serious injury 
of their pastoral charge. For this reason ignorance, 
vice, and abuses crept in amongst the inferior clergy, 
and even into such monasteries as had been spared 
by the Saracens, Normans, and Hungarians. Pre- 
lates accompanied their prince to war, to court, and 
to the chase. They thought it no shame to buy the 
riches, immunities, and rights attached to a prelacy. 
But little thought was given to fitness or vocation. 
Simony drew in its train all vices, particularly igno- 
rance and license. These scourges were felt more or 
less by France, England, Germany, and all the 
west, except Spain, which underwent other trials. 
But it was Italy that suffered tlie most from these 



TiiiRB Epoch, 187 

terrible abuses, and from there came the loudest and 
most bitter complaints. 

Holy Pehsonages ; the Abbey of Cluny (910). 
— Meanwhile no Catholic country was totally de- 
prived of examples of sanctity. Italy herself in the 
tenth century was the admiring witness of the vir- 
tues of St. Nilus of Calabria ; St. Komuald, founder 
of the Camaldoli, and St. Peter Orseolo, doge of 
Venice ; soon followed St. John Gualbert, St. Peter . 
Damian, St. Leo IX., St. Gregory VII. Germany 
had St. Matilda and St. Adelaide, on the imperial 
throne ; and close to the throne St. Bruno, St. Wolf- 
gang, and St. Ulrich, with whom began papal canon- 
izations as 2-)ractised to our own time. Germany, 
too, sent apostolical men to the northern nations. 
England, though incessantly harassed by the Danes, 
could boast of St. Dunstan of Canterbury, St. Os- 
wald of Winchester, and the Chancellor St. Turke- 
tul. France had wdtnessed in 875 the extinction 
of the last representatives of the age of Charle- 
magne. But in 910, through the munificence of 
"William the Debonnaire, duke of Aquitaine, the 
pious Abbot Bernon founded the famous Abbey of 
Cluny in a lonely valley of Maconnais. This abbey 
was destined to become a school of learning, and a 
nucleus of wide-spread reformation for hundreds of 
monasteries, thousands of prelates, and the Catholic 
world at large. The successors of Blessed Bernon, 
St. Odon, St. Aymar, St. Odilon, and St. Hugh 
had great influence through their virtues, talents, 
and acquirements. From Cluny went forth Abbot 
William, who reformed the monasteries of ISTor- 
mandy, and Abbot Richard, who did the same for 
the monasteries of Lorraine. Hildebrand sanctified 



188 JIlSTORY OF THE MiDDLE AGES. 

himself at Cluny before rctuining to Eomc witli St. 
Leo IX., to reform the Church and to sanctify the 
world. 

Literature, Science, axd Art ; Gerbeet. — 
The Church showed herself during this ei^och more 
than ever the asylum, the protectress, and the mother 
of useful knowledge. With few exceptions the il- 
lustrious men of the time were churchmen, as Ab- 
bon of Fleury, Flodoard of Eheims, Ditmar of 
Merseburg, Witikind of Corwey, Luitprand of Cre- 
mona, all respectable historians. St. Odo, abbot of 
Cluny, and the Italian monk, Guido of Arezzo, wrote 
on music. The latter designated by points upon 
lines and spaces the different sounds of the octave, 
whose notes he named ut^ re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, 
from the first syllables of the hymn of St. John 
Baptist.* A German nun, Eoswitha, composed dra- 
mas in Latin in imitation of Terence. But of all 
the authors of that age the most distinguished was 
Gerbert, who, from being a simple monk, became 
master of the royal school of Eheims, then arch- 
bishop, and finally pope— Sylvester 11. (999-1003). 
The prevalence of crime during the preceding cen- 
tury, and a wrong understanding of the Scripture 
portents, had led many to look forward to the year 
1000 as the last year of time, the year of the final 
judgment. As that year approached general conster- 
nation prevailed. Tlie monasteries were overcrowded 



♦Ft qneant laxis 
Resonare fibris, 
Mira gestorum 
Famuli tuorum ; 
Solve poUuti 
Labii reatum, 
Sancte loannes. 



Third Epoch. 189 

by terror-stricken criminals, who sought by a hur- 
ried and insincere repentance to atone for years of 
infamy. But Sylvester II., who was pope at that 
time, was free from those superstitious fearc and 
helped to revive confidence by the calmness with 
which, amid the general dread, he directed the em- 
peror, kings, and prelates. It was he who first intro- 
duced the use of Arabic figures, which he had learned 
from the Moors in Spain. The cruel treatment of 
Christian pilgrims by the Fatimite caliph, Hakem, 
gave this pope the idea of the Crusades a full cen- 
tury before they were undertaken. Speaking for the 
suffering church of Jerusalem, he addressed the 
Christian world in a celebrated letter : '^ The unbe- 
lievei'S desolate the holy places whence went forth the 
apostles to enlighten the world, vviiere our Eedeemer 
was manifest in the flesh, where he preached, suf- 
fered, and was buried. *His sepulchre,' it is written 
in the i^roi^hecies, 'shall be glorious.' Soldiers of 
Christ, arise ! Gird yourselves ! But, if 3'OU cannot 
bear arms, lend the aid of your counsel and your 
wealth, and thereby obtain remission of your sins." 
A fleet of Genoese and Pisans was organized in an- 
swer to his summons, and landed on the coast of 
Syria, but perished miserably. 

Sec. 2. — Conversion of the Scandinavians; the Provi- 
dcntial Order of the Conversions. 

We have seen the Church during the first epoch 
converting all the Germans who had come down upon 
the Roman territories and settled within them. Dur- 
ing the second epoch the Church sent missionaries 
to preach the Gospel in Germany itself, where they 
were protected by the Carlovingians. In the third 



190 IIlSTOR r OF TUB MiDDLE A GES. 

period the conversion of the Scandinavians, a people 
of Germanic origin, was effected in like manner. 
About the same time the Slavonic nations nearest 
the Christian frontiers received the Gospel, as did the 
Bulgarians, Hungarians, and Scythians, owing to 
their advantages of position. We cannot but ad- 
mire the merciful dispensation of Providence that 
called to Christianity and civilization first the vran- 
dering and most turbulent barbarians, and then by 
tlieir means those barbarians who had remained in 
their own country. Thus the Church recruited her 
ranks, repaired her losses, and diminished the evil 
of the invasions by evangelizing the very homes of 
the invaders. Once converted, these nations, previ- 
ously ferocious and plunged in ignorance, set out 
upon a glorious career in history. 

St. An^scaeius (825-805), Apostle op the 
North. — We have seen the Anglo-Saxon missionary 
Willibrord purchasing thirty Danish children to in- 
struct them as missionaries for their own country- 
men. A hundred years later Harold the Dane, 
with his retinue, sought baptism at Mayence in pre- 
sence of Louis the Debonnaire. On his departure he 
took with him the learned and intrepid monk, An- 
scarius of Corbie, who offered himself as a missionary 
for the northern nations. One day while in prayer 
he was rapt to heaven, where he contemplated the 
glory of the saints, when a voice said to him: "De- 
scend again to earth, and return not hither till thou 
hast won the crown of martyrdom." This martyr- 
dom was a mission of forty years of toil and suffer- 
ing. Having, with his fellow-laborer, reached Den- 
mark, they, after the example of St. Willibrord, 
bought young pagan slaves and instructed them in 



Thtfd Epoch, 191 

the faith. Their aposfcolate was beginning to bring 
forth fruit when Harold was driven away and Den- 
mark closed against the Gospel. Meanwhile, an im- 
perial embassy was sent to Sweden. Anscarius joined 
the French deputies, converted many Swedes, and 
built several churches. The archiepiscopal see of 
Hamburg being erected, Anscarius was promoted to 
it, with legatine powers in Denmark, Sweden, and 
Norway. He continued to wear coarse garments, to 
live poorly, and to labor with his hands for the sup- 
port of his co-laborers and to procure presents for 
pagan princes. His perseverance was crowned with 
success. Eric of Jutland, who came to destroy the 
rising church of Hamburg, granted leave to build 
churches and preach the Gospel in his own kingdom. 
Anscarius sent his priests in all directions, and la- 
bored incessantly till his death (865). 

Cheistianity IK DEi^MAKK. — The successors of 
Anscarius in the see of Hamburg inherited his zeal 
for the instruction of idolaters. But the princes re- 
mained pagan, and at times cruelly persecuted the 
missionaries. Xot till the emperors had gained several 
victories over kings Gorm and Harold Blaatand was 
liberty to preach secured. Harold, having resolved 
to receive baptism (972), favored Christianity with 
all his power, but he v/as dethroned by his apostate 
son, Sv/eyn, who became king of Denmark, Norway, 
and the conqueror of England. Although his suc- 
cess seemed calculated to injure the cause of Chris- 
tianity, it only served it ; for his son and heir, Canute 
the Great (1014-1035), educated in England and 
married to the pious Emma of Normandy, was a 
thorough Christian, and gloried in uniting his sub- 
jects in the faith of the Catholic Church, in which 



192 IIlSTOR Y OF THE MiDBLE A GES. 

lie had instructed liimself while making a pilgrimage 
to Rome. His successors, particularly his nephew, 
Sweyn II., continued to defend tlie true faith not- 
withstanding the opposition of the votaries of Odin. 
To the insular bishoprics of lloskilde in Seeland and 
Odense on the island of Funcn were added the conti- 
nental bishoprics of Boergluni and Yiborg, in Jut- 
land, as also that of Lund, which soon became the 
metropolitan see of Denmark. Under St. Canute IV. 
(1080-108G) Christianity flourished in all but a fcAV 
parts of Denmark, and in suppressing the opposition 
in one of these the holy king met his death by assas- 
sination. 

Swede:^". — The temple of Upsal was the sanctuary 
of the religion of Odin and the Runic mysteries. A 
fiendish plot was concocted there to annihilate the first 
mission founded by St. Anscarius. But the apostle 
appeared in the assembly of pagan priests, in presence 
of the king and all the people, and demanded a hear- 
ing. On this a murmur arose. lie persisted, and 
the pagan priests cast lots, which resulted in favor of 
hearing Anscarius. Thenceforth the Gospel was 
openly preaclied in Sweden, but its progress was 
slow, in spite of the devotion of Archbishop Unni, 
one of St. Anscarius's successors. Olaf, wdio was 
baptized in 1001, was the first Christian king of 
Sweden. Thereafter churches, monasteries, and pil- 
grimages multiplied, especially under Sverker and 
St. Eric IX. Scara was the first episcopal see, and 
was soon followed by others, of which Upsal became 
• the metropolitan. 

Norway. — The daring pirates known as North- 
men, or Normans, w^ere nearly all from tlie Norwe- 
gian coast, where they returned often laden with 



Third Epoch. 193 

sacred vessels, ornaments, and reliquaries plundered 
from the churches. Hence Norway had at an early 
date some notion of Christianity. After the con- 
version of their countryman, Rollo, the Norwegian 
kings themselves took the initiative. One of them 
swore in an assembly of the people that he would 
offer no more sacrilices, except to the God of the 
Christians ; another urged his subjects to be baptized-, 
along wdth himself. '^You so readily forsake the 
gods of our fathers," they retorted, '^low can we be 
faithful to your new God ? " National opposition 
subsided under Olaf I. (994) and totally ceased 
under St. Olaf II. (1033), who, assisted by Anglo- 
Saxon and German priests, consolidated the Norwe- 
gian Church by founding the primatial basilica of 
Drontheim and the cathedrals of Bergen, Hammer, 
and Stavanger. 

In the year 1000 Christianity was favorably re- 
ceived in Iceland by a popular assembly. The Ice- 
landers then undertook to convert Greenland, which 
their navigators had discovered. Thus all the Scan- 
dinavians were converted. 

Sec. 3. — Conversion of the Slavs. 

Eeligion" and Character of the Slavs. — The 
mythology of the ancient Slavs was very simi^le. It 
consisted in a belief in spirits, with a vague notion 
of a Supreme Being and a hope in a future life. 
That was the sum of their religious belief. How- 
ever, they soon materialized their spirits, and divided 
them, like the Persians, into two general classes : one 
class were white and good gods, the other class black 
and wicked. They made monstrous rejoresentations 
of these gods, with three or four heads. A powerful 



194 History of the JIiddle Ages. 

l^riesthood, under a supreme pontiff at Novgorod, 
offered human sacrifices and succeeded in gainins: an 
ascendency over families. Tlie Slavs were sociable, 
hospitable, cheerful, bold in war but docile to their 
masters. They differed essentially from the Ger- 
mans in their Oriental contempt for woman, who was 
often burnt with the corpse of her husband. Their 
religious dualism and brutality to women were evi- 
dently Asiatic importations or traditions. 

While the Slavs groaned under the yoke of the 
Goths, Huns, Avari, or other conquering pagans, 
they could give but little thought to Christianity. 
But once delivered from their oppressors, surrounded 
by Christians, and in communication with Central 
Europe, they would naturally turn, it would seem, 
to a religion in harmony with their character and 
primitive belief. But such was not the case. The 
southern Slavs, established by Heraclius, or Constan- 
tine Pogonatus, in the two Illyrias, conformed only 
outwardly to the Christian faith, and awaited free- 
dom from the imperial yoke to abandon it. The 
Slavs scattered along the frontier of the Carlovingian 
empire allowed themselves to be instructed and bap- 
tized to please Charlemagne, but on the decline of 
the empire of the Franks the masses returned to 
their gods. But the hour was come for their apos- 
tles to bring them into the fold of the Church. 

SS. Cyril axd Methodius, Apostles of the 
Slavs. — The city of Thessalonica, in Macedonia, was 
much frequented by foreigners of every nation, on 
account of its commerce and its seaport. Here in 
the ninth century were born of distinguished parents 
the brothers Methodius and Constantino. Metho- 
dius, the younger, seems to have early embraced the 



Third Epoch, 195 

military profession and to liave risen to the rank of 
general, while his brother, afterwards called Cyril, 
availing himself of the influx of strangers at Thessa- 
lonica, applied himself to the study of languages. So 
great was his progress that he received the surname of 
liliilosoplier. He was ordained priest, while soon after- 
wards his brother entered a monastery. A deputa- 
tion of Kazares having come to Constantinople (850) 
to solicit a Christian preacher, the patriarch Ignatius 
designated Constantine, who remained long at Kher- 
son and converted many Kazares, without, however, 
being able entirely to free those weak-minded people 
from their superstition. 

Coj^YEESio^ OF THE BuLGARiAJ^s. — Meanwhile 
Methodius, by request of King Bogoris, left his cell 
\ind came amongst the Bulgarians of the lower 
Danube. His eloquence, and the impression pro- 
duced by a picture of the last judgment, brought 
about the conversion of the king, who in baptism 
took the name of Michael. The nation imitating 
their king, Constantine came to his brothers aid. 
It was then that Constantine invented the Slavonian 
alphabet and a current hand suitable to that tongue, 
to which he arranged a liturgy. He translated most 
of the Bible into this language, which was a means 
of gaining to Christianity not only the southern Bul- 
garians who had adopted a Slavonian idiom, but also 
all the nations of Slavonic race. The converted Bul- 
garians enjoyed intimate relations with the great 
Pope Nicholas I., who wrote for their instruction a 
famous epistle. King Michael Bogoris, to sanctify 
himself, entered a monastery, but continued to watch 
over his people. Still the Bulgarians were too near 
Constantinople, especially after their union with the 



196 History of the Middle Ages, 

cmi^ire (1010), to escape its influence. With the 
Greeks they were drawn into the schism, in which 
tliey have generally remained to the present day. 

Coiy'VERSioj^- OF Moravia axd Bohemia. — At 
the close of the ninth century the Moravians were 
the haughtiest and most influential of all the Slavs. 
Disliking as well the German priests as the king, 
Louis the German, they solicited missionaries from 
Constantinople. Cyril and his brother Methodius, 
wuth the sanction of Pope Nicholas I. (8G3), came 
to them and zealously labored for six years. The 
delighted Moravians were converted for ever to the 
faith. Cyril, spent w^ith toil, withdrew into a 
monastery, where he died soon afterwards (868). 
Methodius was consecrated at Eome as archbishop of 
Pannonia. He continued to govern his church 
twenty years longer, notwithstanding the comj^laints 
constantly made against him to the Holy See by the 
German priests, w^ho found faidt with his use of the 
Slavonian liturg}^ although that liturgy had been 
approved by the pope. He completed the translation 
of the Scriptures into the Slavonian tongue, which at 
his brother's death had got no further than the Psal- 
ter and the Gospels. While giving his special atten- 
tion to the central Slavs, he confirmed the southern 
Sla^vs in the faith. He exerted more direct influence 
over the Czechs of Bohemia, whose duke, Borziwoi, 
he baptized (890), and who, with his consort, St. 
Ludmilla, labored most actively in the conversion of 
his subjects. After this prince's death a reaction 
took place, in which Ludmilla and her grandson, St. 
Wenceslaus, fell victims to the pagan fury. Under 
Bolcslaus the Pious (967-999) the triumph of Chris- 
tianity was made jiermanent. 



Third Epoch, 197 

Cokveesio:n' of the Poles. — St. Methodius is so 
venerated by the Slavs that each Slavic people claims 
him as its apostle, particularly the Poles, who assert 
that he preached the Gospel among them soon after 
the accession of Piast, their first king. The precious 
seeds of Christianity were certainly brought to Po- 
land by exiled Moravians who had known Methodius; 
but the Polish nation began to be Christian only 
under Duke Micislaus, the husband of the i)ious 
Dombrowka of Bohemia, wdio prevailed on her hus- 
band to receive baptism (9G6). The Poles were at- 
tached to their idols, but they loved their prince still 
more. For his sake and by his order they seized the 
statues of their gods and, with great grief, broke 
them and cast them into the Vistula. They then 
listened to the preachers of the Gospel, among whom 
was St. Adalbert of Prague. The admirable life of 
this apostolic man moved the hearts of the Poles, and 
their resistance ceased when they heard of the heroic 
death which he met at the hands of the barba- 
rous Prussians, and of the numerous miracles 
wrought at his tomb. They came in crowds to vene- 
rate the relics of the missionary martyr and to crave 
baptism. Boleslaus the Brave (992-1025) was no less 
zealous than his parents, and before his death saw 
Poland Catholic. 

CoxyERSio:N- or the Eussiaxs axd HuxgaIii- 
AKS.— The Slavs of the Elbe were not so speedily 
converted, notwithstanding the six bishoprics found- 
ed in their country by Otho the Great, and the salu- 
tary example of their prince, Gottschalk. The latter 
had been killed in a riot excited by fanatics, after 
which the pagan priests seized Bishop John of Meck- 
lenburg and conducted him in pomp to their temple. 



198 History of tue Middle Ages. 

where they immolated him to their deity. The Rus- 
sians would not have been so docile if the faith had 
not been preached to them and baptismal water poured 
upon them by the imperious order of their grand 
duke, Vladimir. They did not resist. 

The Hungarians had been reclaimed from tlieir 
ravaging career and severely chastised by Henry the 
Fowler and his son. As soon as they saw their khan, 
Geysa, led to tlie baptismal font by his wife, Saralta 
(99G), they asked that they might all be baptized. 
But, nevertheless, they continued to sacrifice to 
their gods, even after tlieir baptism, when Vaic, who 
in becoming' Christian was named Stei:)hen, succeeded 
to liis father. Brave, just, magnanimous, full of 
faith, the holy king (997-1038) constituted himself 
the apostle of his dear Hungarians. By his mar- 
riage with tlie sister of St. Henry he entered into 
close alliance with Catholic Germany, whose civiliza- 
tion he introduced into his kingdom. He founded 
the archbishopric of Gran (Strigonium), ten bishop- 
rics, and four abbeys in Hungary, and hospices for 
his subjects at Ravenna, Rome, Constantinople, and 
Jerusalem. The golden crown sent him by Pope Syl- 
vester II., with the title of king (1000) and the right 
of having the cross borne before him, are symbols of 
the wholesome influence he exerted during forty-one 
years. The premature death of his son, St. Emeric, 
occasioned some difficulty in the succession, but the 
storm, passing bv, ushered in the happy reigns of 
Geysa the Great, and of his brother, St. Ladislaus 
(1077). 

Consolations and Hopes of the Church. — 
Meanwhile feudalism had brought profound humilia- 
tions upon the ecclesiastical hierarchy. But the sane- 



Third Epoch. 199 

tifjing action of tlie Cutliolic Church does not depend 
on the personal sanctity of her ministers. Since the 
age of the apostles no epoch, perhaps, had seen so 
many nations converted to Christianity. The three 
Scandinavian kingdoms, the four great Slavonian 
countries, and the two principal Scythian nations in 
Europe not only embraced the faith but bore fruits 
of consummate holiness. Not a throne, not an inde- 
pendent sceptre, but was honored by a saint, and 
often by a martyr. In those countries where former- 
ly thousands of idols were enshrined, where human 
victims were immolated, where murders, pillage, and 
invasions were rife, churches and monasteries arose, 
piety was propagated, and civilization developed. 

In the north of Europe there were still pagans who 
could be converted only by armed knights ; in the 
south, Mohammedans who were never converted, and 
who were to be driven by war into the burning 
deserts. Such was to be the task of the Church, and 
of the Christian republic that was to follow. 



FOURTH EPOCH (1073-1270). 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF ST. GREGORY VIL 
TILL THE DEATH OF ST. LOUIS— 197 YEARS. 

The Papacy and Christian Europe — thus we denominate this 
epoch, because we see Europe, united in the same faith, 
forming a vast republic of confederate states under the di- 
rection of the Holy See. The sovereign pontiffs, having freed 
the Church from the encroachments of imperial power and 
feudalism, encourage great military expeditions in the cause 
of religion, both in Europe and the Orient. i\ll Christian 
nations take part in the Crusades — French and English, not- 
withstanding their rivalry, and even the Scandinavians, 
scarcely converted and civilized. A new invasion, that of the 
Mongolians, leaves no lasting traces, except in Russia. 
Eveiywhere Catholic civilization, inspired with the religious 
sentiment, produces admirable masterpieces and illustrates 
the most glorious epoch of the mediaeval ages. 



CHAPTER I. 



STRUGGLE OF THE POPES WITH THE EM- 
PIRE (1073-1250). 

The Church, enslaved by the feudal system, and, as it were, 
secularized, struggles energetically for liberty. After the 
first conflict she obtains a recognition by princes of her in- 
dependence, wholesome for herself and honorable for the 
sovereign. After the second, the popes, wishing to strengthen 
their temporal authority at Rome, espouse the interests of the 
Italian people, and end by humbling the empire. 

Sec. 1. Investitures; Sf. Gregory VII. and Henry 
IV.; Concordat of Worms (1073-1122). 

SlTUATIO^N" OF THE ClIURCII BEFORE THE STRUG- 
GLE. — The eloquent and austere Peter Damian thus 

200 



Fourth Epoch. 301 

complains of the perversity of the eleventh century, 
and his words are corroborated by the testimony of 
contemporaries: ^^ Priests are no longer regarded 
with the respect which is their due ; the holy canons 
are trodden under foot ; laymen usurp the rights of 
the Church, invade its jDossessions, and enrich them- 
selves with the substance of the poor as though it 
were the spoils of the enemy ; princes openly put up 
for sale the priesthood of souls, the government of 
monasteries, the keys of heaven ; they find among 
the sons of Simon the Magician buyers who fleece 
the flock to pay their sacrilegious debts. Alas ! even 
the Apostolic See, once the glory of the world, has 
fallen a prey to simony." 

It is unfortunately true that at this epoch the 
Western clergy had nearly everywhere^ fallen under 
the pernicious influence of secular life, and had lost 
all right to popular respect. A great number paid 
no heed to the obligation of celibacy, if they knew 
of its existence. Most of the jorelates owed their 
dignity either to intrigues, servility to princes, or to 
the scandalous traffic stigmatized as simony, because 
the purchaser, like Simon Magus, seeks to buy the 
gift of God with money. 

IxvESTiTUEES. — Tlicsc disorders all arose from a 
principal cause which at first glance was not of suffi- 
cient importance to lead to notable effects. But all 
the great minds of the eleventh century saw its fatal 
drift. Sovereigns had grown into the habit of in- 
vesting archbishops, bishops, and abbots with the 
most expressive insignia of their sjoiritual dignity, 
just as they had been accustomed to do in the inves- 
titure of a i^urely temporal dignity. By solemnly 
conferring the crosier and the pastoral ring on the pre- 



203 History of the Middle Ages, 

lates elect, the king or emperor evidently seemed to 
confer jurisdiction over souls ; hence spiritual power 
emanated from the will of the prince and underwent 
all the resulting conditions, being accessible not to 
the most worthy but to the richest, the most fa- 
vored, and, in fact, to the highest bidder. From this 
source flowed all manner of evils — simony among 
courtly 2^relates ; license among other ecclesiastics, 
who were ill-instructed and ill-governed ; utter dis- 
regard of discipline among the monks, and want of 
respect among the simple laity. 

Moreover, the Papacy, though sovereign in it3 
temporal patrimony, was tossed about between the 
claims of Italian princes on the one hand and the 
exactions of the German emperors on the other. 
Henry III., in return for his services, had just reas- 
sumed the exclusive privilege of confirming or veto- 
ing any pontifical election ; he made a rigorous use 
of this privilege, which resembled investiture, and 
subjected the supreme authority in religion to the 
will of a secular prince. The Catholic hierarchy 
was everywhere subjected to the feudal laws ; the 
pope himself, accepted or named by the emperor, was 
merely a vassal. 

It was, then, of paramount necessity to free the 
Church from these chains ; and, above all, to shake 
off the yoke that weighed down the pope, and there- 
by give the clergy the liberty, purity, and consid- 
eration they had lost, and without which their 
sacred ministry is barren. 

Eeformiitg Popes ; HiLDEBRAjq-D Cardi>?-al 
(1049-1073).— After the Council of Sutri (10-46), 
■v\diich healed the schism of Rome, Gregory YL, 
again become John Gratian by his abdication, fol- 



Fourth Epoch, 203 

lowed the emperor beyond tlic mountains, taking 
with him his pupil Hildebrand, the son of a Tuscan 
carpenter. Both master and disciple stopped at 
Cluny, where Hildebrand received the religious 
habit from the hands of St. Odilon ; his talents, 
acquirements, and above all his virtues, soon caused 
him to be elected prior under the holy Abbot Hugh, 
who presented him at the emperor's court, and for 
some time left him in charge of the education of his 
young godson, the future Henry lY. The prior 
and abbot had just returned to their monastery 
when Bruno, bishop of Toul, arrived, who had been 
designated by his cousin, the Emperor Henry III., 
to succeed Pope Damasus II. Hildebrand coun- 
selled the pious prelate to lay aside the pontifical 
robes, then to proceed to Rome barefoot, in a pil- 
grim's garb, and thus offer himself to the suffrages 
of the electors. Bruno, having followed this counsel, 
was elected by acclamation, and took the name of 
Leo IX. This success encouraged the holy pope to 
undertake important reforms. Hildebrand, sum- 
moned to Eome, was created cardinal (1049). He 
was the man God had chosen to direct the conflict- 
ing opinions of men by his wonderful tact, and who 
by his indomitable firmness was to secure the eman- 
cipation of the Church. Long had his soul, con- 
sumed with burning zeal, poured itself out before 
God in prayer. '^ The lowliest woman," said he to 
his friends, '^ may accept or refuse a spouse, while 
the most noble of queens, the holy Church, is not 
left to her choice. She must be free, her children 
spotless and blameless, her pope independent. The 
Church shall be free." 
Hildebrand in his solitude had already matured a 



204 IIisToizr OF the Middle Ages. 

plan of dclivcrancG. It was in accordance with tliis 
plan that, when prior of Cluny, as we have seen 
above, he had advised one elected by the emperor to 
regard that choice as null, and to have himself 
canonically re-elected. Raised to be cardinal, coun- 
sellor of the popes, vested with full power, and 
venerated by the faithful, he used his immense in- 
fluence to advance the work of reform among 'the 
clergy by numerous councils, reparative legations, 
paternal exhortations, or exemplary chastisements ; 
but he still more strenuously pursued the execution 
of his plan after the death of St. Leo IX. and his 
three successors. The regular election was first 
effected at Rome ; then, by his credit at court and 
his eloquence, Ilildebrand would succeed in making 
the emperor's choice fall upon the 2)ope elect. Fi- 
nally, under Nicholas II. (1059) regulations for pon- 
tifical elections were drawn np conformable to the 
views of the holy cardinal, reserving solely tlie honor 
due to King Henry as a last formality. This king 
was the young Henry IV., still under the tutelage 
of his virtuous mother, Agnes of Poitou. Thus cir- 
cumstances favored the emancijoation which time 
and prudence alone could complete. 

Meanwhile other reforms were set on foot. The 
people often constituted themselves the too eager 
executors of pontifical sentences by maltreating 
married priests and j^illaging the houses of simonia- 
cal prelates ; sometimes Heaven confirmed by won- 
ders the testimony of the multitude. The Floren- 
tines, in presence of the legate, Peter Damian, ac- 
cused their bishop of simony. As the legate delayed 
to pass sentence, the 2')eople offered to prove the 
truth of their accusation by the judgment of God, 



Fourth Epoch, 205 

known as the Ordeal of Eire. Two piles were raised 
close together in the public square. A holy monk of 
Yallumbrosa was chosen for the test. The piles 
wxre kindled, and the monk after a prayer passed 
unharmed through the flames, his bare feet not even 
scorched by the burning embers they trod. The 
Florentines rent the air with acclamations, and the 
result of the ordeal was looked upon as the work of 
Providence and a positive confirmation of the bi- 
shop's unworthiness. He was solemnly deposed. 
The monk was made a cardinal, and was ever after- 
wards known as Peter Igneus. Still, the work of 
reformation met many obstacles in the vile 2:)assions 
of clerics, the ambition of prelates, in the privilege 
of confirmnig or vetoing papal elections which the 
emperor continued to arrogate to himself. The 
grandees of the empire had forcibly removed Henry 
lY. from the tutelage of his mother ; he grew up in 
debauchery, and shamelessly sold ecclesiastical bene- 
fices. The pontificate of Alexander II. (1061-1073), 
already troubled by an anti-pope, suffered from the 
disturbances in Germany ; on his death it was to be 
feared that the disorders of the king of Germany 
w^ould eventually compromise the holy works so hap- 
pily begun. 

IIiLDEBRAXD PoPE (ApRiL, 1073). — A great con- 
course of cardinals, bishops, clerics of all orders, 
and a countless throng of the laity were assembled 
in the basilica of St. Peter to celebrate the obse- 
quies of Pope Alexander. Suddenly an extraordinary 
commotion is visible in the assembly. All cry out : 
'' St Peter chooses the Archdeacon Hildebrand as 
his successor ! " Hildebrand is thunderstruck and 
tries to ward off the impending blow ; but the peo- 



206 IIlSTORY OF THE MiDDLE AgES. 

pie redouble their cries, till a, cardinal from the 
pulpit proclaims his election in these terms: ''As 
we deem no one better fitted to govern the Church 
and to defend this city than the Archdeacon Ililde- 
brand, a man of wisdom and experience we all 
bishops and cardinals, unanimously with you 
choose him sovej-eign shepherd of our souls. *^He 
shall be called Gregory." He' was instantly vested 
in the purple robe, cope, and tiara, and seated on the 
chair of 8t. Peter. All present were full of joy ; 
Gregory alone was a prey to sincere and deep sor- 
row. Better than others he saw the extent of his 
obligations, the necessity of reform, the tenacity of 
abuses and of opposition, the utter impossibility of 
saving the Church without w^aging a frightful war. 
Contrary to all expectation, and despite the wishes 
of the pontiff, Henry approved of all that had been 
done ; this was the last pontifical election confirmed 
by the emperors. 

Prudekce axd Firmness of St. Gregory VII. — 
Obliged to submit, Gregory seized the helm with a 
firm and skilful hand. He had seen that tlie decrees 
of his predecessors were often not enforced through 
lack of firmness : an age of iron, he said, needs a 
man of iron. However, he did not lose sight of the 
Gospel precepts of meekness and prudence. He was 
resolved not to let his zeal hurry him along blindly. 
Inveterate abuses could not at once be eradicated ; 
support and auxiliaries were needed. Thinking it 
advisable to begin by reforming the ministers of the 
holy altar, he was anxious to secure the assistance, 
or at least the respectful neutrality, of the secular 
princes. In his letters to sovereigns, even to the 
emperor of the East, to the great vassals of France, 



Fourth Efocr, 207 

Germany, and Italy, and distinguished personages, 
to notify tliem of liis accession, lie exhorts them to 
lend him all their authority to put down license and 
simony amongst the clergy. 

A journey which he made through Italy secured 
the steadfast co-operation of the powerful Countess 
Matilda of Canossa, and brought back the princes of 
Beneventum, Capua, and Salerno to their fidelity. 
Eobert Guiscard himself hastened to do homage and 
to offer his own mighty sword, and to bind himself 
and his doughty companions to the service of the 
pope whenever they might be called upon. But the 
most directly efficacious means employed by Gre- 
gory against the vices of the clergy was the annual 
convocation of a council at Eome. In it were dis- 
cussed all questions of law and of fact ; discipli- 
nary canons renewed ; cases of ecclesiastics of every 
rank cited to aj^pear were judged ; the guilty were 
pitilessly deposed, the weak strengthened, the good 
encouraged. From every province the pontiff re- 
ceived acts of submission to his decrees. Princes, 
particularly Henry lY., applauded his efforts. Gre- 
gory congratulated the king of Germany on his 
filial submission to the Apostolic See. 

CEI3IES A^-^D DiFFicuLtiES OF Hexry IY. — This 
prince had been eager to confirm the election of 
Gregory, and to promote the execution of the de- 
crees relative to the clergy throughout Germany and 
Italy. He thus wrote to the pope: '^The clergy 
and the empire should be intimately united ; but, 
alas ! through the irregularities of youth, the abuse 
of supreme power, and evil counsellors, I have sinned 
against Heaven and against you. ;N"ot only have I 
left churches defenceless, but I have sold them to 



208 HiSTOU Y OF THE MiDDLE A GES. 

unworthy subjects. As I ciiimot reform them with- 
out your authority, I implore your aid and counsel 
in this matter and in ail that concerns me. You 
shall be obeyed in all things.'' But these generous 
advances oU'ered no guarantee of sincerity, llenry 
was in extreme embarrassment in consec|uence of a 
formidable war against the provinces of ^Saxony and 
Thuringia, that had revolted in consequence of his 
lust, his exactions, and his insupportable tyranny ; 
except a few courtiers and several simoniacal pre- 
lates who were attached to his fortunes, the great 
vassals of the empire contemplated deposing him. 
Petitions from all quarters poured in upon the Holy 
Father to use his supreme authority against this 
second Nero by excommunicating him and releas- 
ing his vassals from their oath of allegiance. 

IxTERDiCTioiq- OF li^VESTiTURES. — Gregory did 
not heed these clamors, but ho thought the moment 
favorable to complete the great work of reform by 
correctinj? the abuse whence flowed all the others. 
In a new council held at Eome in the spring of 10T5 
ho absolutely prohibited all lay princes to confer, and 
all ecclesiastics to receive, any investiture whatso- 
cvei', under penalty of the most terrible anathemas. 
In all the Catholic countries of Europe this decree 
was published, and nowhere met with any opposition. 
King Henry, now emperor elect, feared for his crowns 
in Germany and Italy. The pope, profiting by this 
salutary fear, tried to correct the young Henry, whom 
he loved, and in order to call his attention to this 
decree without sending it directly to him, threatened 
excommunication upon five imperial officers by whose 
counsel the churches were sold, if, before the month 
of June, they did not come to Kome to crave pardon. 



Fourth Epoch. 2C9 

The decisive blow was struck. Should the emperor 
accept the decree concerning investiture, the election 
of popes, prelates, and other sacred ministers would 
be freed from corruption and the Church emanci- 
pated. But fear, that alone had restrained Henry, 
vanished after the dearly-bought victory of Hohen- 
burg (July 13), which enabled him to stifle the pitia- 
ble complaints of the Saxons. Swelling with j)ride, 
he required the pojjc to depose the prelates who had 
taken sides with the vanquished. Gregory nobly re- 
fused. Then Henry, in defiance of the pontifical 
decree, gave the solemn investiture of the crosier 
and ring to three German prelates. At his instiga- 
tion some simoniacal prelates of Italy, led on by the 
scandalous Guibert of Eavenna, rose against the 
pope. Guibert went so far as to plot against Gre- 
gory's life in concert with Cencius, a wealthy and 
factious Koman noble. The latter seized the pontiff 
while he was celebrating midnight Mass in the 
church of St. Mary Major ; had the people not risen 
against the criminal Cencius, the pope would have 
perished. This vengeance did not suffice Henry IV. 
A cabal met at Worms, at which an excommunicated 
cardinal presided ; they heaped maledictions and in- 
sults upon Gregory, and pronounced against him a 
sentence of deposition. The prince notified the 
pope in a letter bearing this inscription : '' Henry, 
king by the grace of God, to Hildebrand, the bad 
monk and false pope." The cleric sent to Eome to 
bear the message arrived as Gregory was opening his 
council (March, 107G), and audaciously addressed 
the august assembly. This effrontery would have 
cost him dear if Gregory had not shielded him with 
his own person. The pope then pronounced, in full 



210 History of the Middle Ages. 

council, against Henry and liis abettors the sentence 
of excommunication, which was to be followed by 
deposition if, before the expiration of one year, every 
one of the excommunicated did not seek absolution 
from the sovereign pontiff in person. 

Gregory and Henry at Canossa. — This sol- 
emn sentence, which was published simultaneously 
throughout all Germany, and made more solemn by 
several heavenly manifestations, completely changed 
the aspect of affairs. The great vassals withdrew 
from Henry ; Saxony again took up arms, supported 
this time by Suabia, Bavaria, and Carinthia ; Gos- 
lar, the favorite resort of the prince, several of his 
castles, and two palaces were taken and pillaged ; his 
troops were defeated; a diet held at Tribur (October 
15) notified him that if before the expiration of the 
year he was not released from his censures, he should 
no longer be regarded as king, and that another 
should bo chosen in his place. The lords informed 
the pope of their resolutions, entreating him to pro- 
ceed to Augsburg before the end of the winter to 
direct and preside at the new diet. Gregory be- 
sought them by letters not to bo precipitate ; then, 
hoping to moderate them and to spare Henry, whom 
he wished to save, he set out for Germany, but the 
unusual rigor of the w^inter forced him to tarry at 
Canossa, a stronghold belonging to the Countess 
Matilda. 

Meanwhile Henry lY., abandoned, threatened, 
disgraced, resolved to forestall the fatal term. Not- 
withstanding the intense cold, he set out from the 
Rhine to Canossa, accompanied by his wife, his 
young son, and several servants, and crossed the 
Jura, the icy Leman, and the Alps. The pope, to 



Fourth Epoch. 211 

inspire him with horror for his crimes, before ad- 
mitting him to an audience. required him to perform 
a severe penance of three days within tlie enclosure 
of tlie castle, and to accept certain conditions under 
oath. Henry unreservedly submitted, and the pope 
withdrew the ban of excommunication (January 20, 
1077). 

Struggle ik Germaky and Italy ; Death of 
St. Gregory VII. — Henry had not yet left Ca- 
nossa when, beset by some ambitious Italians and 
simoniacal prelates, he forgot his oath, freely min- 
gled with the excommunicated, among others Gui- 
bert of Eavenna, and tried to seize the pope, or at 
least to close Germany against him. On this intelli- 
gence the German lords assembled at Forchheim, 
thinking themselves justified in breaking once for 
all with a perjured prince, without awaiting the 
sanction of the sovereign pontiff, chose for king the 
brave and pious Rudolph of Suabia. This election 
brought Henry back to Germany, where a bloody 
struggle ensued, which was not ended even by the 
death of Rudolph, victorious in the battle of Elster 
(1080). His successor was Hermann of Luxemburg, 
a good warrior, but who, possessing neither the 
brilliant qualities nor the immense influence of Ru- 
dolph, could not force Henry to return from Italy, 
whither he had hastened to crush the pope. In his 
fury Henry, not content with naming the anti-pope, 
Guibert of Ravenna (Clement III.), in the cabal of 
Brixen, sought to possess himself of Gregory's person, 
in order to outrage and torture him at will, and 
sacrifice him to his vengeance. The undaunted 
pontiff foresaw the storm without ceasing to watch 
over the Church, and even to hold his annual coun- 



212 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

cil ; lie put his confidence in God, and God did not 
forsake him. The lieroic Countess Matilda roused 
the enthusiasm of her subjects in favor of the Holy 
Father ; fortifying her castles, she levied and led her ' 
troops in person across upper Italy to check the 
advance of the Germans. Eobert Guiscard, master 
of lower Italy, had just cast himself at the feet of 
the pope to implore i)ardon and to swear fealty and 
homage to him. Rome was guarded by the troops 
of Matilda and the Iloman princes. Henry, accom- 
panied by the anti-pope, laid siege to that city in 
the spring of 1081 ; but the courage of the besieged, 
animated by Gregory, withstood during three 3Tars 
all assaults, owing to tJie skilful diversions of Ma- 
tilda, who harassed the imperialists in the Eoman 
Campagna and in the neighboring provinces. 

Henry obtained by bribery wdiat he could not have 
gained by arms. The people, weary of a prolonged 
siege, opened the city to the Germans ; Guibert Avas 
enthroned at St. Peter's, and with his sacrilegious 
hand gave the imperial crown to Henry IV. on 
Easter Sunday, in the presence of a mercenary popu- 
lace. The rejoicings of this triumph did not last 
long. Robert Guiscard was reported to be marching 
on Rome with a formidable army. In fact, Gre- 
gory, who had retired to the Castle of San Angelo, 
had informed his new vassal of his straits and called 
him to his aid. Henry, unable to resist, hastened to 
leave Rome with his anti-pope, thus abandoning the 
Romans, who had compromised themselves for him, 
to the cruel though not unmerited chastisements of 
Robert. This conqueror *^ appeared in Rome like a 
fierce lion, a glorious triumpher, crushing traitors 
under his feet or reducing them to slavery." He 



Fourth Epoch, 213 

brought back the pope to St. Jolin Latcran, where a 
last council wi:s held to excommunicate the anti- 
pope, with all his adherents, and to affirm the supe- 
riority of the spiritual over the temporal. At the 
same time Cardinal Otho of Ostia, who later became 
Urban II., sent by Gregory beyond the mountains, 
l"»ublished the same decrees and censures in the 
council of Quedlinburg, in presence of King Her- 
mann. 

Gregory's mission was fulfilled, and he could die 
in peace. But as the Romans attributed to him tlie 
evils they had just undergone, he went into exile. 
He accompanied Eobert to Monte Cassino to ven- 
erate the relics of St. Benedict, and to encourage his 
friend, the Abbot Desiderius, as if he had a presen- 
timent that Desiderius was to be his successor ; 
thence he proceeded to Salerno, where he gave him- 
self up to pious contemplation. At last, summou- 
ing the cardinals, bishops, and clerics, after some 
conversation with them he said : ^^ In the name of 
Almighty God, in virtue of the authority of the 
holy apostles Peter and Paul, I command you to 
acknowledge as lawful pope no one wlio is not 
elected and consecrated according to the canonical 
laws of the Church." And then, rallying once more 
before he expired, he uttered the words which epito- 
mize the history of his life : "I have loved justice 
and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." 
And then he rested after a life of labor (May 25, 
1085), leaving to his successors, with the example of 
his virtues, laws for reforming the clergy, and a 
struggle which could not fail to secure the Church 
her absolute independence by the triumph of the 
spirit over the flesh, and of mind over matter. 



214: History of the Middle Ages. 

The Heirs of St. Ghegory VII. — Apparently 
Tanquished, exiled, despoiled, Gregory really died 
victorious ; his grand idea survived him ; his influ- 
ence in the choice of popes was as potent after as 
before his pontificate ; the persons whom he had 
designated were successively elected and continued 
to carry out his plan, notwithstanding their fears of 
so formidable a succession. Desiderius, abbot of 
Monte Cassino, hesitated for more than a year before 
he gave way to pressing entreaties and let himself 
be made pope under the name of Victor III. Otho 
of Chatillon, bishop of Ostia, who was a Frenchman 
by birth, resisted the prayers of the electors for six 
months. At last he relented and took the immortal 
name of Urban II. He beheld Eome in the power 
of the anti-pope Clement ; Italy and Germany in 
flames ; kings wavering in their obedience. But he 
was nothing daunted. In the two glorious councils 
of Piacenza and Clermont, in the presence of im- 
mense multitudes, he declared his adhesion to the 
principles of St. Gregory VII., condemned the in- 
vestitures, excommunicated the guilty monarchs, 
Philip and Henry, and preached the first Crusade. 
Then he entered Rome, whence the anti-pope had 
been driven. The death of Urban II. (1090) was 
no gain to the anti-pope's three successors ; the law- 
ful pontiff, Pascal 11. , whom Gregory VII. had in- 
vited from Cluny, was soon acknowledged by all the 
faithful, for he v/as the pope of the Crusaders, the 
successor of Urban II., and the herald of the con- 
quest of Jerusalem. The anti-popes had not these 
honors or sacred titles ; moreover, they began to feel 
that the arm of flesh wliich had constituted their 
strength was failing. 



Fourth Epoch. 215 

MiSFORTUN'ES OF Henry IV. ; HIS Death (1106). 
— For some time tlie emperor congratulated him- 
self on his good fortune : his most terrible adver- 
sary, Gregory, had fled, and Eome for twelve years 
remained closed against the lawful popes ; Eobert 
Guiscard was dead ; the Countess Matilda, in conse- 
quence of her attachment to the Holy See, was 
abandoned by her husband, Welf or Guelph of Bava- 
ria, whose family had been reconciled with the em- 
peror ; the anti- Caesar Hermann, having retired to his 
domains, died soon afterwards. But now began a 
series of misfortunes which arose in the bosom of 
Henry's own family and ended in a frightful catas- 
trophe. His eldest son, Conrad, had himself pro- 
claimed king, and during six months occupied the 
fairest provinces of the empire ; his wife denounced 
him before the council of Piacenza, revealing his 
turpitude and demanding vengeance ; his noblest 
kinsmen deserted him for the Crusades ; finally, 
Henry, his youngest son, and sole heir since Conrad's 
death, also revolted and held his father in prison 
until invested by him with the insignia of roy- 
alty, after which he compelled him to leave the 
country. Arrived at Liege, the old emperor wrote 
to King Philip of France a sorrowful account of his 
woes. What is still more lamentable is that he re- 
nounced all reconciliation with the Church, and died 
w^ithout any sign of repentance. His body was de- 
prived of the honors of sepulture. A truly sad end 
for a prince seemingly born with happy inclinations, 
but whom, after a fifty years' reign, evil counsellors, 
pride of power, and licentiousness plunged into an 
abyss of woe. 

Disgraceful Proceedings of HEiq^RY V. (1106- 



216 History gf the Middle Ages. 

1125). — It miglit be siiiiposed that the affair of the 
investitures was terminated by the aeeession of a king 
who liad taken arms to force liis father to a recon- 
cihation with tlie Cliurch. But Henry V., after the 
shameful brutalities wliich earned for him the sur- 
name of Parricide, lost no time in displaying his 
ambition, perjury, and hypocrisy in broad daylight. 
Pascal II., like his predecessors, desired the inde- 
pendence of the Church and the abolition of the 
investitures ; but while he had many virtues, he was 
wanting in firmness, and proved himself more con- 
ciliatory than his predecessors by withdrawing all 
censures from Philip I. of France, and Henry I. of 
England. With Henry V., hitherto zealous for the 
Cliurch, Pascal thought he miglit be more unyield- 
ing. He required that prince absolutely to renounce 
the investitures. The latter indignantly alleged the 
right inherent to his crown, and to enforce it en- 
camped with thirty thousand knights on the plains 
of the Po, preparatory to marching on Rome. The 
pope advanced against him as far as Sutri ; by an 
excess of generosity ho expressed himself ready to 
restore to the king all the ecclesiastical fiefs of Ger- 
many and Italy, and to crown him emperor, provided 
he would for ever renounce the investitures. Henry 
did not expect so generous a proposal, which he 
knew would be ill received by the higher clergy as 
little in harmony with the needs of the times ; never- 
theless he accepted. This agreement met so loud an 
expression of dissatisfaction from the clergy that the 
pope was compelled to retract the decree. This the 
king had foreseen, and, immediately seizing the person 
of the pope, regardless of the strenuous resistance of 
the Romans, he cast him into prison, dejn-ived him 



Fourth Epoch. 217 

of food, and inflicted sucli ill treatment upon liim 
that the pontiff was forced to sign a new compro- 
mise, in substance as follows : ''Elections of prelates 
shall be made freely, without simony, in presence of 
the king, who shall decide in case of a doubtful 
election ; the king shall tl jnfer the investiture 

with the crosier and ring cer which the prelate 
elect shall be consecrated. This arrangement de- 
parted from the plan of Sw Gregory, but it was also 
far from meeting the insane demands wdiich had 
been made by Henry IV. Wearied of war, the 
pope signed it ; and then, having promised not to 
excommunicate the king for imprisoning him, he 
was restored to liberty, and Henry V. was crowned 
emperor (1111). This mingling of violence and per- 
fidy in an emperor towards a captive pope was 
almost identically reproduced seven centuries later. 

Henry V.'s odious proceedings w^ere blamed even 
by his most steadfast friends, among whom Conrad of 
Salzburg and the young Norbert, the future foun- 
der of the order of Premonstratensians. The pope 
w^as too conscientious to excommunicate the prince, 
but the bishops of France and Germany did not 
hesitate to do so in the councils of Vienne and 
Cologne. The concessions of the pope excited de- 
bates, in the course of Avhich wdiat had been a vexed 
and complicated question was made so clear that it 
w\as possible to distinguish what belonged to God 
from what might be allowed to Cassar. 

Concordat of Worms (1122) ; Ninth CEcu:»ieni- 
CAL Council (1123). — In the discussion caused 
by the decree of 1111 some theologians heartily ap- 
proved of what the pope had done, and others, inju- 
diciously lauding St. Gregory VII., taxed the decree 



218 History of the Middle Ages, 

with heresy, while several found means to reconcile 
the liberty of the Church with the right of the em- 
jDcror, who was temporal sovereign of property and 
persons. Pascal II. made Henry propositions most 
honorable to the crown ; but Henry would hear 
nothing. He again set out in haste to Italy, under 
pretext of regulating the succession of the Countess 
Matilda, recently deceased, but in reality to seize 
this rich possession, which of right should have 
fallen to the Holy See. At Henry's approach Pascal 
lied from Rome ; but ho was brought back by the 
Normans and died soon afterwards (1118). His 
successor, Gelasius II., was also compelled to flee. 
He died at Cluny after a pontificate of a few 
months. A French prince, Guy of Burgundy, arch- 
bishop of Vienne, who took the name of Calixtus 
II., was then elected. With him terminated the 
struggle. In a council at Rheims he made mode- 
rate propositions to the emperor. Henry, who had 
just created an anti-pope, rejected the propositions 
of Calixtus ; but being threatened with excommuni- 
cation, and seeing Germany in commotion, he dreaded 
his father's fate and hastened to the diet of Worms 
(1122). There Henry V. renounced the investiture 
by the ring and crosier, granted full liberty of 
elections, and promised to restore to the Church 
all its possessions. The pope, on his part, agreed 
that the elections of Germany should take place in 
presence of the emperor or his representative, and 
left it to him to decide in case of doubt. Besides 
this, the prelates elect of Germany, Italy, and Bur- 
gundy might receive investiture by the sceptre, and 
thus acquit themselves of their obligations towards 
their sovereign. Such was the Concordat of Worms, 



Fourth Epocs, 319 

which realized the grand idea of St. Gregory VII. 
and justly caused universal joy. The following year 
the pope convoked an oecumenical council in the 
Lateran basilica ; nearly a thousand fathers approv- 
ed the Concordat, decreed in detail the restoration 
of discipline, and occupied themselves with the fate 
of the Christians in the East and in Spain. This 
was the Ninth (Ecumenical Council, and the first 
held in the West (1123). 

Everything relating to the liberty of the Church 
was regulated. Two years later Henry V. died 
without posterity ; an election gave him as succes- 
sor Lothaire II. (1125-1137), a very pious prince. 
Fearing that his presence would unduly influence 
the elections of bishops, he made no use of the 
right which the Concordat gave him, and was con- 
tent with an oath of allegiance taken by the pre- 
lates after their consecration. The Church was 
then free, not only in law but in fact. 

Sec. 2. The Popes and the Hohenstaufens ; GueJpUs 
and Gliiheliues ; Indejjendence of Italy ; the Long 
Interregnum of the Empire (1137-1272). 

Liberty iiq" Italy ; Axti-Popes axd DE:^rA- 
GOGUES ; Aii:n^old of Brescia (1130-1155). — The 
liberty guaranteed to the ecclesiastical electors by 
the articles of the Concordat, and the conscientious 
reserve of the Emperor Lothaire, although in them- 
selves most praiseworthy, led at first to some griev- • 
ous results. It often happened that an election was 
contested and that two prelates disputed for the 
same sec. Now, while in Germany the emperor's 
known desire could settle the dispute in favor of 
one of the parties, the case was otherwise in Bur- 



220 History of the Middle Aces. 

gundy and Ituly. In tlic latter country especially, 
the inhabitants of the cities could no longer brook 
the temporal dominion which the bishops had exer- 
cised from time immemorial, and still less the 
power which the lords who had their castles in the 
city or neighborhood arrogated to themselves. As 
for the imperial count, he had lost all authority. 
From this epoch dates the creation of the consuls, 
appointed by the people to govern the city, and the 
invention of the carroccio, a car surmounted by an 
altar, cross, and standards, around which the people 
rallied when they had resolved on war. Already the 
Italian cities were republics ; the bishops generally 
had renounced their political privileges, which more- 
over had been greatly curtailed and almost annulled 
by the contested elections. 

The Komans could not help feeling the breath of 
liberty that swept over Italy. Contested elections, 
the lawful pope held in check or driven away by an 
anti-pope, tlie intervention of a foreign prince, the 
harangues of demagogues — all these causes came near 
compromising the temporal power of the sovereign 
pontiffs. At the death of Calixtus II. (1124) there 
had been a double election, but, as one of the elect 
renounced his claim, schism was obviated. At the 
death of Honorius II. (1130), however, there was a 
schism which lasted eight years ; the anti-pope Ana- 
cletus (Peter de Leone), having conferred upon Ro- 
ger of Sicily the title of king, and so won his power- 
ful support. Innocent II. was forced to quit Rome 
and betake himself to France, where his cause was 
pleaded and Avon by the eloquence of St. Bernard. 
Brought back in triumph by his illustrious cham- 
pion, it was nevertheless not till after the death of 



Fourth Epoch, 221 

Anacletus that Innocent was able to maintain liim- 
self at Kome. Then lie convoked the Tenth (Ecume- 
nical Council (lloO). This was the second Latcran 
Council, and it met to complete the reform of the 
Church, to condemn the schism of Anacletus, and 
to anathematize certain heretics, among whom was 
Arnold of Brescia. 

Arnold had been the disciple of the famous Abe- 
lard in France. On his return to Italy he took the 
monastic habit. But from the principles of his 
master, and the ideas of reform which then occupied 
all minds, he had formed a doctrine of his own. 
According to his yiews, clerics, prelates, nay, even 
the pope himself, should j^ossess no revenue, no 
temporal power, in order to attend solely to spiritual 
works. This political heresy, preached, nevertheless, 
with fiery eloquence by a monk of an austere life, 
soon gained ground among the Koman people during 
the schism of Anacletus. The dream of the Romans 
was to revive their ancient sway over the entire 
world. But the return of Pope Innocent, the solem- 
nity of the council, and the conclusion of peace with 
Eoger, whom the pope acknowledged as king, forced 
Arnold to escape, first to France, then to Zurich. 
But his party in Rome was powerful enough to 
create a senate, a patrician, and tribunes ; he him- 
self soon returned and harassed the successors ©f 
Innocent II., particularly Eugene III., who was 
brought back to Rome by his glorious vassal. King 
Roger, the conqueror of the Greeks and of Northern 
Africa. On the other hand, the republicans of Rome 
appealed to Conrad III. to hasten there to rule the 
world, exacting ^^what was CaBsar's by obliging even 
the pope to pay tribute, as St. Peter had done by 



222 History of tue Middle Ages, 

order of Jesus Christ." Conrad either could not or 
would not heed this appeal. 

Conrad III. (1137-1152) ; the Guelphs and 
GiiiBELiNES OF GERMANY. — Tlio rcign of Lothaire 
II. had been -disturbed only by the claims of the 
family of Hohenstaufen, represented by Frederick the 
Cross-eyed, duke of Suabia, and his brother Conrad, 
duke of Franconia. The latter had assumed the 
title of king, which he relinquished at the entreaties 
of St. Bernard. For this he was generously indem- 
nified by the Emperor Lothaire. Elected to suc- 
ceed the latter, Conrad of Hohenstaufen did not 
imitate his generosity. The family of the Guelphs 
(Welfs), represented by Henry the Proud, the son- 
in-law and heir of Lothaire, held Bavaria, Saxony, 
and Tuscany. On the pretext that this family was 
too powerful, Conrad declared it to have forfeited 
Saxony and Bavaria, and he bestowed these fiefs 
upon other vassals. But Henry the Proud speedily 
reconquered Saxony, which had remained loyal to 
him ; death prevented him from recovering Bavaria, 
where his brother, Guelph of Altorf, was at the head 
of an army with headquarters at Winsberg Castle. 
Conrad and his troops approached, crying, " Waib- 
lingen ! Waiblingen I" the name of the seat of the 
Hohenstaufens, near AVurtemberg, and the first fief 
they possessed. The Winsberg soldiers responded 
with cries of ** Welf ! Welf !" the name of the family 
for whom they were fighting. Such is the origin of 
the words Guelph and Ghibeline, which so often 
recur in the history of the thirteenth and the two 
following centuries, and which, transferred to Italy, 
assumed a new meaning. 

Winsberg Castle opposed a spirited resistance, 



Fourth Epoch, 223 

but, deprived of succor, was forced to surrender. 
Conrad ordered that only the women miglit depart 
and carry away whatever they held most precious ; 
they carried oU their husbands. To put an end to 
the war the emperor gave Saxony to the young 
Henry the Lion, a son of Henry the Proud, but did 
not give him back Bavaria. Guelph remained without 
an appanage. 

This intestine struggle and the political enmities 
it enkindled throughout the empire ; the departure 
of Conrad III. for the second Crusade, and his in- 
glorious return ; finally, the difficulties of the un- 
dertaking, precluded German interference in Italy. 
Conrad even declined being crowned emperor. King 
Eoger of Sicily, master of Southern Italy and the 
sea, troubled himself but little about the rest of the 
peninsula, where anarchy was rife. Venice, Genoa, 
and Pisa began to venture upon the sea; Milan 
domineered over the free cities of the plains and de- 
stroyed Lodi ; Pavia took the lead of the Ghibeline 
cities which still inclined to the king of Germany. 

Feederick Baebarossa (1152-1190). — Conrad 
IIL, on dying, had designated as his successor not his 
son, then too young, but his nephew, Frederick of 
Hohenstaufen, duke of Suabia, surnamed Barbarossa, 
at that time thirty years of age. Learned, handsome, 
brave, and generous, Frederick was profoundly im- 
pressed with the grandeur and majesty of royalty. 
Scarcely was he elected and crowned at Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle than he settled, in capacity of suzerain, the 
dispute between the claimants to the throne of Den- 
mark. He resolved to subdue Hungary, and endea- 
vored to pacify the Guelphs by restoring Bavaria to 
Henry the Lion. Then, influenced by political and 



224 History of the Middle Ages. 

religious motives, lie turned his eyes towards Italy. 
After crossing the Alps (1154) he hung up his 
buckler in the plains of Iloncaglia, near the Po ; 
thither, according to custom, all the Italian feudato- 
ries repaired to renew their homage, after passing 
one night as guard to the king. Envoys of the 
prince were sent to all tlie towns to collect the dues 
of the royal treasury. Some cities having dclicd 
these envoys, Frederick marched against them and 
destroyed several, among others Tortona. Before 
setting out for Home he received the iron crown at 
Pavia, then, crossing Tuscany, encamped on the 
borders of the Tiber. 

The pope was Adrian IV. (I^icholas Breakspear), 
the only Englishman who has ever sat in the chair 
of St. Peter. His temporal authority was almost en- 
tirely set at naught by the Roman people, now more 
than ever under the influence of Arnold of Brescia. 
Arnold, being excommunicated, escaped from Rome, 
and, while w\andering in the Campagna, fell into the 
power of Frederick, who delivered him to the pope. 
The prefect of the city hastened the trial, and by 
the orders of Frederick and with the assent of the 
people, the demagogue was first strangled in the 
Castle of St. Angelo, and then his body was burnt in 
presence of the people. After this execution the 
Romans thought to impose conditions upon the 
future emperor ; they demanded, before his corona- 
tion, money, certain privileges, and the guarantee 
of their liberty by an oath. They dilated on tlie an- 
cient greatness of their city, but Frederick replied : " I 
marvel at your words, which are more arrogant than 
"wise. Doubtless Rome was once great and power- 
ful ; but a Frank has come, great in name and in 



Fourth Erocii. 225 

exploits, who lias taken away lier liberty. All is 
now in my power — your consuls, your senate, your 
soldiers." The prince afterwards held the stirrup 
of the pope, who, proceedmg to St. Peter's Church, 
solemnly crowned Frederick as emperor of the Ro- 
mans (June 18, 1155). The indignant populace 
thrcAV themselves upon the imperialists, who easily 
mastered them, killed many, and drove hundreds 
into the Tiber. The emperor, quitting Rome, dealt 
severely with the disobedient people of Spoleto and. 
with the revengeful Veronese. Returning to Ger- 
many, he compelled all to bend to his will ; the king- 
of Poland was humbled, the duke of Bohemia award- 
ed the title of king. Frederick was at the zenith of 
his power in the sixth year of his reign ; his height 
was so great that he might naturally expect to be- 
come dizzy. 

A new exjoedition was set on foot against Italy to 
chastise the spirited city of Milan and the heir of 
the brave Roger of Sicily, William I. This latter 
had repelled the attack of the Greeks, who were 
Frederick's allies, and besides had done liege homaga 
to the pope for all his possessions, and this homage- 
irritated the emperor. A letter from the pope in- 
creased his irritation. 4-drian reproached him witk 
some excesses for which he demanded satisfaction, 
and paternally reminded him that he had cheerfully 
granted him signal benefits [heneficia). This Latin 
word grated on the ears of Frederick, who understood 
leneficia in the feudal sense, and supposed that he^ 
was regarded as a feudatory. Cardinal Roland 
further embittered him by exclaiming : " From 
whom, then, does the most noble emperor hold his. 
crown ?" The pope thought it better to mollify the 



22 G History OF THE Middle Ages, 

prince by himself offering a loyal explanation of the 
word. Nevertheless Frederick j^assed over to Italy 
(1158), laid siege to Milan, which was compelled by 
famine, pestilence, and the sword to surrender. 
The emperor had his throne erected two leagues 
from tlie city ; the archbishop, the consuls, and the 
notables of the city aj^proached barefoot and bare- 
headed. After them came the people with ropes 
around their necks ; all prostrated and took the 
oath of allegiance. Thence Frederick again proceed- 
ed to the plain of Roncaglia to hold a solemn diet. 
Four doctors of law from Bologna proclaimed aloud 
that ^^the will of Caesar is law, and tlie good pleasure 
of the prince has the force of law." According to 
this autocratic principle the bishops, nobles, and 
cities of Italy were judged ; a famous constitution 
was drawn up in the name of Frederick, emperor, 
ever Augustus, to determine taxes, the census, to 
regulate the government of cities, the transmission 
of fiefs, and the oaths of vassals. The emperor, 
without consent of the pope, assessed taxes on 
church property, invested Guelph with Tuscany, 
which had been left to the Holy See by the Countess 
Matilda, and arbitrarily disposed of several arch- 
hishoprics. Excommunication was about to be 
launched against Frederick when Adrian died (Sep- 
tember 1, 1159). 

Alexan^der III. (1159-1181) axd the Lombard 
League. — The tyrannical exactions of the emperor 
met with violent opposition in Lombardy, especially 
in Milan, Cremona, and Brescia. Frederick had 
sworn to avenge the outrage offered to his pretended 
rights. Before passing the plough and sowing salt 
over the ruins of Milan, he halted under the walls 



Fourth Epoch, 227 

of Cremona, casting over to the besieged the heads 
of their prisoners, while the besieged retaliated by 
tossing back the heads of the imperialists. He 
there learned that Cardinal Koland, elected by the. 
majority of votes pope under the name of Alexan- 
der III., had a competitor in Octavian (Victor IV.), 
elected by a minority favorable to the emperor. 
The emperor, without abandoning his other under- 
takings, gladly gave the investiture to his creature, 
Octavian, and did his utmost to annul the election 
of Alexander. Octavian had been acknowledged by 
the conciliabule of Pavia. Like Innocent II., the 
pope was driven to seek refuge in France. With 
this schism ended Frederick's successes. 

After the destruction of Milan (1102) he returned 
to Germany, where troubles had arisen ; but more 
serious difficulties soon recalled him into Italy, 
which had revolted against his tyrannical commis- 
saries. Meanwhile the anti-]Dope died, and Alexan- 
der re-entered Eome. To smother the agonizing cry 
of the suffering cities, and to uphold the new anti- 
pope, Frederick hastened across the Alps to raise an 
army and to march upon Rome, which he easily took, 
without capturing Alexander, who had fled to Bene- 
yento. While pestilence was decimating his troops 
trouble arose in his rear : fifteen Lombard cities 
bound themselves by treaty to defend their liberties, 
to rebuild Milan, and to uphold Alexander, who 
was in alliance with them. Frederick, out of his 
head, flew to Pavia, and thence to Susa, with an 
escort of but thirty men ; he came near being taken 
prisoner, and escaped only through a disguise (1168). 
The Lombard League steadily increased, and built 
a city called Alessandria in honor of the pope. 



228 History of the Middle Ages. 

Frederick was prepiiring to take signal vengeance. 
While awaiting his coming Christian of Mayence 
laid siege to Ancona, heroically defended by the 
citizens, and delivered by the army of the League. 
The emperor, arriving, burnt Susa, marched upon 
Alessandria, nicknamed by the imperialists Straw, 
but met with so determined a resistance that Fred- 
erick was forced to raise the siege. Henry the Lion, 
offended by a refusal of the emperor, returned to 
Germany with all his vassals. For a moment Fred- 
erick thought of suing for peace ; but his resentment 
gained the upper hand, and he advanced to the at- 
tack of the castle of Legnano, five leagues from Milan. 
He was in turn attacked by the confederate army, 
and, in spite of his bravery, beheld his banner and 
treasures falling into the hands of the enemy, his 
troops cast into the river or driven to shameful flight 
(May 29, 1176). At the same time the imperial gal- 
leys were seized by the Venetians. 

TRE.VTY OF VEis^icE (1177) ; Eleventh (Ecumeni- 
cal Council (1179) and Peace of Constance 
(1183). — Frederick was reduced to sue for peace, and 
Venice was assigned as the meeting-place. Pope 
Alexander was the first to keep the appointment, 
and magnanimously received the emperor at the 
entrance of the Church of St. Mark. On beholding 
the august pontiff against whom he had been so long 
in arms, Frederick, unjible to master his emotion, cast 
aside his imperial mantle and threw himself at the 
feet of the pope. The latter immediately raised him, 
gave him the kiss of peace, and granted him the 
enjoyment of Tuscany for fifteen years. The empe- 
ror, in return, concluded a peace of fifteen years 
with King William the Good, of Sicily, and with the 



Fourth Epoch. 229 

Lombard cities — a truce which six years later was 
exchanged for a permanent peace. In commemora- 
tion of tliis joyful reconciliation, the pope presented 
a ring to the doge of Venice as a symbol of the 
union of the Venetians with the sea. The repentant 
and degraded anti-pope received an abbey (July 25, 
1177). 

The Romans, not less jubilant than the other 
Italians, and thoroughly disabused of their political 
Utopias, besought the pope to return at once to Rome. 
Alexander re-entered it triumphant. He soon con- 
voked in the Lateran basilica (March, 1179) the 
Eleventh CEcumenical Council, which prevented for a 
long while the danger of doubtful elections by re- 
quiring two-thirds of the votes to constitute a valid 
election. The Papacy now held peaceful sway over 
liberated Italy. 

The emperor was not so fortunate in German}'. 
To punish Henry the Lion for deserting him in 
Italy, he declared him a felon and deprived him of 
his two great fiefs (Saxony and Bavaria), leaving 
him only his freeholds in Brunswick. The vast in- 
heritance of the house of Guelph was parcelled out 
into twenty petty principalities, comprising New 
Saxony and New Bavaria, all holding immediately 
from the crown. The lay and ecclesiastical pos- 
sessors of these immediate fiefs became so many 
sovereigns, having their courts, army, taxes, and 
currency. This, as will be seen later, imperilled the 
superior authority of the suzerain. At the diet of 
Constance (June 25, 1183) Frederick was forced to 
acknowledge definitely the independence of the Lom- 
bard cities, which, however, were obliged to pay the 
emperor some honors and to take the oath of alle- 



230 History of the Middle Ages. 

giance. Thenceforth the Italian republics chose 
their sx3nate, councils, and their civil magistrates ; a 
podesta, ordinarily a foreigner, was in some cities 
made supreme judge and had the power of declaring 
war. A fcAv cities still adhering to the emperor 
constituted the Ghibeline party in Italy ; while the 
greater number, clinging to their national indej^en- 
dence, were called the Guelph party, less through 
attachment to the family of that name than from 
opposition to the imperial power. The history of 
these two parties was for two centuries the history 
of Italy. 

Frederick Barbarossa was, in a domestic point of 
yiew, fully indemnified, even in Italy, for his losses 
in Lombardy. His eldest son, Henry, married Con- 
stance, daughter of Roger II., legitimate heiress of 
all the Norman possessions in Southern Italy. The 
old emperor again raised his head and made gor- 
geous pageants. The popes feared, not Avithout rea- 
son, that they should be hamj^ered more than ever 
both north and south by the Hohcnstaufens ; they 
were beginning to remonstrate and threaten when 
their attention was directed to Jerusalem, just taken 
by Saladin. Frederick, till then more attentive to 
the temporal interests of his children than to the 
just displeasure of the Eoman pontiffs, nevertheless 
proved that he was alive to the calamities of Chris- 
tendom ; he valiantly assumed the cross at the age of 
sixty-eight. His heroism and tragic death (June, 
1190) cover a multitude of faults. 

Pope IxxocEJiTT III. axd the Claimants to the 
Empire (1198-1216).— Frederick Barbarossa had left 
his son, Henry VI., to succeed him in Germany 
(1190-1197). That prince, in violation of all jus- 



Fourth Epoch. 231 

tice, disgraced liimself by imprisoning Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion (the Lion-hearted), and, with the ran- 
som money so shamefully extorted for the release of 
Richard, he fitted out an expedition in order to ob- 
tain possession of Sicily. His cruelties there won 
him the surname of Cyclops, and his ambition ren- 
dered him formidable to the Church. He died sud- 
denly, leaving Sicily to his only son, three years old, 
and already named king of the Romans. This child, 
who became Frederick II., was confided to the tute- 
lage of the Church and of the pope. His education 
was so well cared for, and his hereditary kingdom so 
perfectly administered, that the royal orphan had a 
double reason to call the Church his good mother 
and the pope his tender father. This pope was the 
great Innocent III., the faithful imitator of the 
Gregories and Alexanders, the arbiter of kings 
and nations, the promoter of the holy wars and 
at the same time the organizer of peaceful insti- 
tutions, the indefatigable champion of the rights 
of the Church as well as the rigid guardian of in- 
ternal discipline. 

It was of paramount importance to the sovereign 
pontiffs that the crowns of Sicily and of Germany 
should not be worn by the same head. The separa- 
tion had been exacted and promised at the corona- 
tion of Henry YI. On the death of the latter the 
infancy of his son induced the German electors to 
enter, perhaps in spite of themselves, into the views 
of the Holy See by choosing a prince from amongst 
themselves. The votes were divided between the 
Guelph Otho of Brunswick, a son of Henry the Lion, 
and the Ghibeline Philip of Hohenstaufen, duke of 
Suabia and brother of Henry VI. Naturally, Inno- 



2S2 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

cent III. favored Otlio ; but Philip, by his concilia- 
tory promises, was about to overcome the objections 
of the pope when he was assassinated (1208). All 
the votes of the electors then fell to Otho, who 
lavishcil gifts, promises, and oaths, and was crowned 
emperor by the pope (1209). Otho IV. was no 
sooner crowned than he made haste to break every 
one of his promises, to violate all his oaths, to stir up 
the Romans against the pope, and to dethrone Fred- 
erick of Sicily. The pope threatened him ; but, the 
emperor j>aying no lieed to threats, the poj^e ful- 
minated against him. the terrible excommunication 
(1211). Otho returned to Germany, but too late ; 
the principal lords no longer acknowledged him. 
The youthful Frederick had left Palermo, and, es- 
caping the ambushes laid for him in Lombardy, he 
appeared at Constance (1212). Vainly Otho strove 
to check the people and the nobles ; all flocked to 
Frederick, attracted by his name, his kindly man- 
ners, and his largesses. The fallen emperor found 
no support save in his uncle, the feeble King John 
of England, in whose cause he allowed himself to be 
beaten at Bouvines (1214). Then, retiring to private 
life, he died four years afterwards, reconciled to the 
Church. 

Meanwhile Frederick was solemnly crowned at 
Aix-la-Chapcllo, after having in the diet of Egra 
confirmed by a golden bull all the prerogatives of 
holy mother Church, according to the Concordat of 
"Worms and the other constitutions of the sovereign 
pontiffs. He proposed to resign Italy to his new- 
born son ; he even put on the cross to please his 
good father. Pope Innocent, who in the Twelfth (Ecu- 
menical or Fourth Lateran Council proclaimed the 



Fourth Epoch, 233 

rights of Frederick to the empire (1215). But Pope 
Innocent III. died the year after. 

Frederick II. (1212-1250) ajtd IIoj^orius III. 
(1216-1227) ; Subtle Hypocrisy,— In the successor 
of Innocent III. Frederick found but a devoted 
friend in place of a clear-sighted father. He was 
anxious to profit by the change to ruin his enemies 
in Germany and to secure the election of his son, 
while he was at the same time preparing the way for 
his supremacy in Northern Italy without letting go 
of the South ; and this in direct violation of his 
sacred engagements, his vow to go to the Crusade, 
and the kindness of the pope. 

Damietta, held by the Crusaders, was besieged by 
the Mussulmans (1219): Honorius besought Fred- 
erick to set out ; the latter, representing that the 
house of Guelph detained the crown jewels, craved 
delay and tlie help of the papal censures, to which 
Honorius assented. Damietta was taken. The pope 
again reminded him of his oath ; but Frederick still 
delayed. The time at an end, he demanded an ex- 
tension till autumn, so as to take revenge on the 
miscreants who calumniously charged him with in- 
tending to have his son elected king of the Romans. 
In autumn, soliciting another extension till the next 
spring, under pretext of gathering together the lag- 
gard crusading lords, he humbly begs to retain a 
life interest in the two Sicilies. Honorius, who till 
now had granted everything, formally refused. Fred- 
erick then assured him that he would be satisfied 
with a contingent interest in case his son, the heir 
of Sicily, should die before himself. The pope, hav- 
ing granted this request, was overwhelmed with 
blessings by his most loving son, full of gratitude. 



234: History OF THE Middle Ages. 

S2)ring come, an ambassador arrived from Germany 
bearing a flattering letter to the pope, and another 
intended to excite the Eomans against the pope. 
Thus Frederick prepares for his coronation. Btit 
Avhy comes he not himself ? was asked at Eome. It 
was soon noised about that in a diet held at Frank- 
fort young Henry, the sou of Frederick, had just 
been elected king of the Romans ; his father had so 
gained over the electors that the vote was carried 
without opposition. However, Frederick protested 
in his letter to the pope that the election Avas made 
in spite of himself during his absence ; moreover, 
that Honorius was free to reverse a choice made 
only in the interests of the Church. Honorius, per- 
haps, believed in the sincerity of Frederick, not sup- 
posing him capable of such refined hypocrisy. 

After settling everything according to his desires 
in Germany, Frederick set out (1220) for Rome with 
a brilliant retinue ; there, having promised to tram- 
ple out heresy, uphold the Holy See, to separate 
Sicily politically from Germany, and to go to the 
Crusade, he was crowned (1220). It was soon evi- 
dent how he would keep the first two promises when 
he so openly evaded the last two. Though emperor 
of Germany, he continued to rule Sicily arbitrarily. 
A Crusader, he obtained a respite of two years every 
two years till the death of Honorius. During one 
of these respites he undertook to overcome the Sara- 
cens, who still infested the mountains of Sicily ; but, 
far from crushing them, he spared them, and, re- 
gardless of excommunication, conveyed twenty thou- 
sand to the mainland as future auxiliaries. An- 
other respite permitted him to convoke a diet at 
Cremona, where he sent an army corps, under pre- 



Fourth Epoch, 235 

text of restoring peace among tlie Lombard cities 
rent by the Guelpli and Ghibeline factions. These- 
cities at once saw the danger. Milan brought out 
lier carroccio ; fifteen cities pledged themselyes anew 
to the Lombard confederation ; young Henry of 
Germany could not effect the junction of his troops 
with his father's, and the latter was forced to retreat 
in shame. Meanwhile Honorius III. died (1227). 

Frederick uxmasked by Gregory IX. (1227- 
1241). — Gregory IX., an octogenarian and a kins- 
man of Innocent III., had just been raised to St. 
Peter's chair. He too had loved Frederick, but 
under the preceding pontificate he had learned to 
know him. The history of the sixth Crusade proves 
the firmness of the pope and the cold impiety of 
this prince, who was at last compelled to raise the 
mask. When the emperor had re-entered Italy the 
pope absolved him from the censures he had incur- 
red, and, through the talents of the Dominican 
John of Vicenza, had arranged a treaty of 23eace.be- 
tween him and a large number of cities. Gregory 
showed his sincerity by blaming King Henry for 
rebelling against his father, the emperor, and by 
warning the German nobles not to take part in the 
revolt. Frederick at this very time was treacherous- 
ly making war against the Church by compiling, 
with the aid of Pietro delle Vigne, a Collection of 
the Laws of Sicily, in which absolute Caesarism 
supersedes the Christianity which then formed the 
basis of all legislation, as it regulated all religious 
and civil institutions. The j^ope contented himself 
with opposing this code by the publication of five 
books of Decretals, arranged by the Dominican doc- 
tor St. Kavmond of Peiiafort. 



236 History of the Middle Ages. 

After substituting Conrad IV. in Germany for 
Henry, the emperor returned to Italy, destroyed 
Vicenza and Mantua, beat the Milanese, trampled 
under foot the Italian franchises by the aid of the Cala- 
brian Saracens and the Lombard Ghibelines, among 
whom Eccelino da Romano figured conspicuously. 
The pope then, along with the Genoese and Vene- 
tians, threatened Frederick, and when the latter made 
Enzio, one of his natural sons, king of Sardinia in 
defiance of the Holy See, Gregory fulminated a sen- 
tence of excommunication, released the subjects of 
Frederick from their allegiance, and reproached 
Frederick himself with having spoken the execrable 
blasphemy that the world had been the dupe of three 
impostors, Moses, Jesus Christ, and Mohammed. 
Frederick denied that he had uttered this blasj^hemy, 
and called Gregory the dragon of the Apocalypse, 
^or was this all : with his Saracens he laid waste 
the Roman Campagna, and, relying on the Ghibelines 
in the city, encamj)ed under the walls of Rome. 
But the undaunted Gregory preached a crusade 
.against Frederick, and convoked a council. Frederick 
was compelled to retreat before the Crusaders ; while 
the bishops hastening to the council were made 
2)risoners. This news aggravated a malady from 
which the venerable pontiff was suffering, and he 
died, aged ninety-eight (1241). 

Frederick put down" by Iis^kocent IV. (1243- 
1254). — The excommunicated emj^eror seemed to 
triumph the more surely because he held a great 
number of bishops and cardinals in his power at 
Naples. His permission was needed to elect a new 
pope, Celestine IV., who died eighteen days after his 
election, and had no successor for seventeen niontlis. 



Fourth Epoch, 237 

At last Frederick's intimate friend, Sinibaldo de' 
Fiesclii, a noble Genoese, was elected, and took 
the name of Innocent IV. "Fiesclii was my friend," 
said Frederick on learning the election, *^but Inno- 
cent will be my enemy." Frederick took pains to 
make his prophecy come true. The new pope was 
disposed to remove the excommunication, provided 
the emperor would consent to appear before a coun- 
cil. Frederick's only reply was to march upon Eome, 
destroying everything on his way. He tried to seize 
the pope, but Innocent was carried by the Genoese 
fleet to his own country, and from there he went to 
Lyons, where he assembled the thirteenth general 
council (1245). Before the assembled fathers Inno- 
cent deplored the success of the Monguls, the de- 
struction of the Eastern Christians, the schism of 
the Greeks, the heresies of the West, and the out- 
rages of Frederick. The emperor had sent Pietro 
delle Vigne and Thaddeus of Suessa to plead his 
cause before the council. The latter alone urged a 
delay, which was granted, but it was only to appeal 
to another council and to another j^ope. Then In- 
nocent arose, saying : " I am the vicar of Jesus Christ. 
I have the power of binding and loosing. T there- 
fore declare Frederick guilty of sacrilege and heresy, 
excommunicated and degraded." Then the fathers, 
as a sign of adhesion to this, threw their lighted 
tapers upon the ground. "Day of wrath, of woe,, of 
calamity !" exclaimed Thaddeus on leaving the coun- 
cil. " I have done my duty," said the pope, and he 
intoned the Te Deiim. 

On hearing of his deposition Frederick put on 
his crown, exclaiming : " Torrents of blood shall 
flow ere it falls from my head." With his Saracens 



238 History of the Middle Ages. 

he took vengeance on the Guelphs in Eomugna and 
Tuscany, put out the eyes of his prisoners, and 
spared not even Pietro delle Vigne. Eccehno aud 
Enzio stood by him in Lombardy, and Conrad in 
Germany. But Conrad was held in check ; the Ger- 
mans proclaimed Henry Raspon landgrave of Thu- 
ringia, who died shortly afterwards and was suc- 
ceeded by William, count of Holland. Enzio was 
taken by the Bolognese, who passed a law never to 
surrender him ; the Neapolitans, too, were in com- 
motion. Notwithstanding his success in Tuscany, 
Frederick, beaten at Parma, was compelled to sue 
for peace ; he offered satisfaction, and promised to 
fight in the Holy Land till the end of his life. And 
in the midst of his trouble sickness seized him, and 
he was forced to retire to a small city of Southern 
Italy, where he died overwhelmed with grief and 
humiliation (1250). Frederick was a man of valor, 
generosity, wit, and learning, but he was also given 
to licentiousness, pride, duplicity, cruelty, and, 
above all, he seemed incapable of respect for reli- 
gion, which was the glory of his illustrious contempo- 
raries, St. Louis and St. Ferdinand. 

EXTIN-CTION OF THE HOHEXSTAUFEI^S ; THE LONG 

Intereeg:n'UM of the Empire (1250-1272). — Fred- 
erick IL w^as dead ; Conrad IV. , his sole legitimate son, 
quitted Germany, where with difficulty he stood his 
ground against William of Holland, and claimed his 
hereditary kingdom of Sicily, which was contested 
by Manfred, a natural son of Frederick II. Conrad 
easily won obedience from his Sicilian subjects, but 
he died at the age of twenty-six, leaving his young 
son, Conrad in. Manfred seized upon the govern- 
ment, had himself made king without regard to his 



Fourth Epoch, 239 

nejiliew's rights and in violation of the pope's suze- 
rainty ; he crushed the Guelphs in Florence, and 
then defied Alexander IV. at Eome. In the north 
of Italy Eccelino the Ferocious was still at the head 
of the Ghibelines, and succeeded in surprising the 
Guelph cities, many of whose unfortunate inhabi- 
tants he had beheaded and quartered in the pub- 
lic squares, while their possessions were confiscated 
to the use of Ghibelines. A crusade was preached 
against him and met temporary success. He cap- 
tured Padua from the Marquis d'Este, and confined 
eleven thousand of the Paduans in the dungeons of 
Verona, where they starved to death. At last Ecce- 
lino was wounded and taken prisoner. He refused all 
care, and, having torn open his wounds with his own 
hands, his death was as violent as his life had been. 

At last the Lombard cities breathed again, but the 
Two Sicilies were bowed down under an insupporta- 
ble yoke. In order to shake it off Pope Urban IV. 
summoned a brother of St. Louis, Charles of Anjou, 
count of Provence. This hard, dry, and haughty 
man set out from Marseilles, and, entering the Tiber 
in spite of Manfred, was crowned and invested by 
the pope at Rome, and marched to the conquest of 
his new kingdom. Under the walls of Benevento he 
met his adversary, who threw himself headlong into 
the midst of the enemy ; his body was not found un- 
til three days after the battle (1266). Conradin, re- 
presentative of the Hohenstaufens, still remained. 
He lived in a castle in Bavaria, where he had been 
brilliantly brought up by his mother amid poets 
and military men. The harshness of Charles of An- 
jou turned the thoughts of all on the young prince, 
then but fifteen years old, who set out, notwithstand- 



240 History of tee Middle Ages. 

iiig the apprehensions of his mother. Enthnsiasti- 
cally rceeived at Pisa, lie proceeded by Sienna to 
Viterbo to intimidate Pope Clement IV. '' Fear 
nothing," said the pontiff to his people; '* they are 
victims going to the sacritice." Arrived at the j^lains 
of Tagliacozzo, the rash troops of Conradin were at- 
tacked on the flank by the small army of Charles. 
Conradin and his young friend, Frederick of Austria, 
were seized. Several days later the hapless prince 
mounted a scaffold erected in the square of Kaples 
in sight of the magnificent bay. ^' mother!" he 
exclaimed, " what sorrow have I brought upon you." 
He tlircAV his glove into the crowd and laid his head 
upon the block. With him ended the house of 
Hohenstaufen (October 29, 12G8). 

With the death of Frederick II. began in Germany 
what is termed " the long interregnum of the em- 
pire " (1250-1272). For twenty-two years there was, 
properly speaking, no acknowledged emperor. Con- 
rad IV. was opposed by William of Holland, and af- 
ter the death of these two competitors the election 
of Richard, earl of Cornwall, was offset by that of 
Alfonso of Castile, who did not even appear in Ger- 
many. The great vassals exercised all royal rights 
in their domains ; seven especially reserved to them- 
selves exclusively the right of electing the emperor. 
Petty vassals claimed the privilege of depending on 
none, save paying homage to the nominal suzerainty 
of the crown. Imitating the Lombards, many cities 
became independent, appointed their own magistrates, 
made their own laws ; they made leagues among 
themselves, as in the case of the Hanseatic cities 
and the free cities of the Rhine, for mutual protec- 
tion and in view of commercial interests. 



Fourth Epoch. 241 

The empire had struggled to enslave the Church. 
The empire was vanquished ; its yoke no longer 
weighed on Italy, nor even on Germany ; but the 
Church was still independent. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE CRUSADES IN THE EAST. 

In one hundred and seventy-five years (1095-1270) eight expe- 
ditions, at once religious and military, are undertaken under 
the direction of the popes against the Mussulmans, in order 
to conquer the holy places and to liberate the Christians in 
the East. 

Sec.l. First Crusade (1095-1099); Poiuer of Islam 
and Weakness of the Eastern Empire; Godfrey 
of Bouillon, King of Jerusalem (1099); the 
Knights Hospitalers and the Templars. 

Causes of the First Crusade. — As there is no 
event in history so important as the coming of Jesus 
Christ, so there never was a land so holy as that 
where the Saviour of men accomplished the great 
mystery of the redemption. Every place which he 
had consecrated by his presence became an object 
of veneration to the first Christians, especially Mount 
Calvary, the scene of his sorrowful Passion and glo- 
rious Eesurrection. That sacred mount, profaned 
by the enemies of Christianity, was, under the first 
Christian emperor, restored to the piety of the faith- 
ful. St. Helena, the mother of Constantine the 
Great, was fortunate enough to discover the cross 
and the sepulchre of our Saviour (326). The mag- 
nificent Church of the Holy Sepulchre, raised on the 
very spot, drew thither multitudes of pilgrims, till 



'242 HiSTOlZ Y OF THE MiDDLE A GES, 

in 038 Jerusalem fell into the power of the Mussul- 
mans. The holy patriarch SophroniuG died of grief, 
and all Europe was in consternation. A senseless 
caliph, Hakem (99G-1021), having become master of 
the Holy City, i^ersecuted the worshippers of the 
true God because he claimed divine honors for him- 
self. Pope Sylvester II. then gave the first signal of 
the Crusades. The Christians of the AYest, whose faith 
was enkindled with new ardor, set out in greater 
numbers than ever to Palestine,* and their indigna- 
tion at the evils there endured inspired them with 
the thought of taking up arms in order to cast off 
the yoke of their persecutors. *^ After escaping a 
thousand perils of death," said William, archbishop 
of Tyre, *'the pilgrims, on reaching the gates of Je- 
rusalem, were not permitted to enter unless each one 
paid a piece of gold as tribute to the infidels. Hav- 
ing lost everything on the way, the greater number 
had not wherewith to pay toll. Thus they were 

'Among the pilgrims who visited the Holy Land in the course of the elev- 
enth century history cites Fiilk, count of Anjou, and Robert, duke of Nor- 
mandy. Fulk, called Nera, or Black, being guilty of several crimes and tor- 
tured in conscience, set out for Palestine in the humble garb of a pilgrim. 
Arrived at Jerusalem, he went through the streets of the Holy City with a rope 
around his neck, beaten with rods by his valets, repeating aloud: " Have mer- 
cy, O Lord ! on a faithless Christian, a perjurer and assassin." The conversion 
of Fulk was sincere ; he became as dear to his people by his meekness and 
charity as he had been odious by his excesses. Several years later Robert 
the Magnificent, or the Devil, quitted his duchy of Normandy with staflf and 
wallet, barefoot, and clothed in sackcloth. A servant who did not recog- 
nize him having struck him with a stick, he merely said : " A pilgrim must 
suffer everything for his sins ; " adding, " I prize sufferings endured for Je- 
sus Christ more than the richest city of my duchy." His piety and munifi- 
cence made him famous all over the East. As he was traversing Asia Minor, 
compelled on account of his maladies to be borne in a litter by four Saracens, 
a Norman i)ilgriui, meeting him. asked him what word he would send back to 
his country. The duke replied: "Go tell my people that you have seen a 
Christian prince borne to Paradise by four devils." Robert died at Nicsea, 
expressing his regret that he was not permitted to breathe his last sigh in 
ibe Holy City of Jerusalem. 



Fourth Epoch, 243 

ol)liged to bivouac outside the city, where they soon 
fell victims to want and famine. Such as paid tri- 
hute and entered Jerusalem endured stripes, and 
even death, from the Mussulmans. During divine 
office the infidels entered the churches, uttering fu- 
rious cries ; they even seated themselves on the al- 
tars, overturned the chalices, trampled under foot the 
sacred vessels, heaped insults upon the clergy, not 
even respecting the patriarch, whom they plucked by 
the beard." 

A pious 23ilgrim who, in concert with the patri- 
arch, sought to rescue the holy places, originated the 
great movement called the Crusades, and his pro- 
ject was favored by the religious fervor of the West, 
the union of all Christian states under the direction 
of the sovereign pontiffs, the chivalrous spirit of 
princes and nobles, and the fear produced by the 
alarming progress of the infidels, who threatened to 
destroy the Eastern Empire and thus open their way 
into Europe. 

The Seljukiaj^ Turks. — In the latter half of 
the eleventh century the Mussulmans, then masters 
of the African coast, still threatened Christian Eu- 
rope on the Mediterranean, in Spain, and in the 
south of Italy, But they were especially formidable 
in the East. Tartar hordes from Turkistan had 
crushed the Gaznevides and chosen as chief Tosrrul- 
Beg, a grandson of Seljuk. Togrul-Beg, in response to 
the appeal of the Abbasside caliphs, entered Bagdad 
at the head of 200,000 Turks, and destroyed the rule 
of the Buides. The caliph, in recompense, trans- 
ferred to him the temporal sovereignty of all the 
Mussulman states. He put Togrul-Beg beside him 
on the throne, and put two turbans upon the Turk's 



244 History of the Middle Ages. 

liead, and hung two swords at his sides, as a sign 
that he was to be sovereign of the East and the 
West (1058). Thenceforth the Abbasside caliphs 
exercised only spiritual authority as the successors 
of Mohammed. 

The Seljukian sultans, invested with full political 
and military power, distinguished themselves from 
the first by their brilliant victories and conquests. 
Alp-Arslan (Strong Lion), a nephew and successor 
of Togrul-Beg, dispossessed the Greeks of Armeniar 
and Georgia. The Eastern emperor, Eomanus IV., 
having essayed to check him, was beaten, taken 
prisoner, and forced to bite the dust before the con- 
queror, who styled himself the master of Asia (1071). 
The emperor was set at liberty in consideration of a. 
great ransom and the promise of an annual tribute. 
Under Malek-Shah (1072-1092), the eldest son of 
Alp-Arslan, the empire of the Seljukians reached the 
highest point of its greatness. "While the sultan ex- 
tended its boundaries to China and to the Indus, his 
lieutenants advanced to the Bosphorus and the Medi- 
terranean ; they wrested from the Greeks all Asia 
Minor except Trebizond, and from the Fati mites 
Cairo, Syria, and Palestine. At the death of Malek- 
Shah his vast empire was dismembered to form the 
sultanates, or independent states, of Damascus, 
Aleppo, Persia, and Iconium. The sultan of Ico- 
nium, whose capital was Nicaea, possessed all Asia 
Minor and encamped within sight of Constantinople. 
The other sultans were less powerful, so, that the 
Fatimites of Cairo retook Jerusalem (1094), and held 
sway there till the coming of the Crusaders. 

The Sect of Assassins and the Old Man op 
THE Mountain. — In the midst of the Seljukian 



Fourth Epoch. 245 

empire arose a sect even then famous, and which 
was to be as much feared by Mussulmans as by 
Eastern Christians. Its founder, Hassan, had been 
chamberlain to Sultan Malek-Shah. Having fallen 
into disgrace with his master, he had sought shelter 
in Egypt, where he adopted the monstrous maxim of 
the Ismailian Eatimites : ^^ Nothing is true and 
everything is lawful." Hassan, having enrolled his 
proselytes in a sort of secret society, possessed him- 
self of the fortress of Alamout, or Vulture's Nest, in 
the mountains of Persia (1090). Called thenceforth 
the Sheikh-al-jabal, or the Old Man of the Moun- 
tain, his rule extended afar, and the terror of his 
name still further. His orders were known to a 
few of the initiated alone, and were executed by the 
faithful — better known as Assassins, from Hassan, or 
perhaps from an intoxicating potion called hashish, 
whose property was to rouse them to frenzy. These 
abominable fanatics, dreaming they had tasted all 
the delights of Mohammed's paradise, were equally 
disposed to inflict or to suffer death. Their first act 
was to glut the vengeance of their chief : the grand 
vizier of Malek-Shah was assassinated. In reply to 
the threats of the sultan Hassan gave the ambassa- 
dor a proof of his power. He gave orders to one of 
his faithful to stab himself — he did so ; to another to 
cast himself headlong from the window OA^er a preci- 
pice — at once the command Avas executed. " Know, 
then," added the Old Man of the Mountain, "^'that 
there are seventy thousand who at the least sign are 
equally ready -to do my bidding." Malek-Shah, hav- 
ing at his disposal a numerous army, thought him- 
self able to punish these miscreants ; but soon after 
the mightiest of the Seljukians fell a victim to the 



240 ITisToiir of tue Middle Ages, 

Old Man of the Mountain. One of his sons burned 
to avenge liis death, and threatened to exterminate 
the sect of Assassins ; one morning on awaking he 
found by his bedside a sharpened dagger. *'Tliis 
dagger," wrote Hassan, '"lying near your head could 
as easily have been plunged into your heart." The 
sultan, frightened, consented to treat with the Old 
Man of the Mountain, who retained all the fortresses 
he had built as far as the Anti-Lebanon mountains. 
The successors of Hassan, inheriting his power and 
cruelty, destroyed thousands of victims, among 
whom were caliphs, sultans, and Christian princes. 
This odious sect was not exterminated till the latter 
half of the thirteenth century — in Persia by the Mon- 
guls and in Syria by the sultan of the Mamelukes. 

Affliction" of the Eastern Empire under the 
CoMNENUS Dynasty. — Michael Cerularius had just 
completed the schism from the Latin Church when 
the family of Comnenus, one of the most ancient of 
the empire, ascended the throne of Constantinople 
(1057). This elevation was due to the caprice of 
the soldiery, and to a people whose sole passion was 
hatred to Kome. It was easy to predict that the 
empire could not defend itself against its new and 
formidable foes. The Seljukian Turks, victorious 
everywhere in Asia Minor, pitched their tents on 
the very shores of the Bosphorus. On the other 
hand the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard, after 
driving the Greeks from Southern Italy, pursued 
them beyond the Adriatic, dispossessed them of 
Durazzo, and threatened to advance upon Constanti- 
nople. NortliAvard the Hungarians and the Tatar 
hordes spread their ravages along the right bank of 
the Danube. But the Greeks of the Lower Empire^ 



Fourth Epoch. 247 

insensible to these signs of trouble, were busy chang- 
ing masters and quarrelling among themselves. The 
emperor, Alexis Comnenus, who was a skilful gen- 
eral, was unable to infuse ardor into this degenerate 
people. Money, soldiers, vessels, everything was 
wanting to the emperor when he saw his capital 
threatened by the powerful fleet of the Seljukian 
Turks (1095). In his distress he turned to the West 
for assistance. This appeal helped to decide the 
first Crusade. But Alexis Comnenus could not enter 
into the generous feelings of the Crusaders and 
treated them as barbarians ; he tried to profit at 
their expense, sometimes by an alliance with them, 
and almost as often by furnishing aid to their Mus- 
sulman enemies in return for a share in the spoils. 
This treacherous policy was imitated by his succes- 
sors, and in the end was fatal to the empire. In the 
last years of his long reign (1081-1118) Alexis won 
the contempt of Crusaders, infidels, and his own 
subjects. Even the empress at his death-bed re- 
proached him : '' You die, as you have lived, a hyp- 
ocrite. " 

Peter the Hermit an"d Urban' II. ; Coun^cil of 
Clermont (1095). — The Crusades are among the 
most wonderful facts in history, and yet they were 
brought about in the providence of God, as is 
usual, by an obscure person, a poor pilgrim who had 
no authority but his eloquence and virtue. A priest 
of the diocese of Amiens, called Peter the Hermit, 
on arriving at Jerusalem was deeply afflicted to see 
the holy places profaned and Christians shamefully 
outraged by the infidels. Fired with holy zeal, he 
made known to the patriarch Simeon his determina- 
tion to lay the matter before the sovereign pontiff 



248 History of the Middle Ages. 

and to appeal to the Western princes. Shortly after 
he entered the Church of the Resurrection to pray. 
'"■ Night coming on," says a historian of the time, 
*' Peter, worn out by his prayers and long vigils, 
stretched himself upon the pavement of the nave to 
sleep. And lo ! while he slept our Lord Jesus 
Christ came and stood before him, saying : ' Arise, 
make haste, Peter ! Do with courage what I have 
commanded thee. I shall be with thee ; for the time 
is come to purge the holy places and to help my 
servants.' Peter arose, strengthened by the vision 
of God, and, according to the order from on high, set 
out in haste." 

Pope Urban II., to whom he vividly depicted the 
sorrowful condition of the Holy Land, entered into 
his plans and resolved to work for its deliverance. 
He directed the Hermit to prepare the people by his 
moving eloquence. Peter, mounted on a mule, cru- 
cifix in hand, barefoot, and girt with a rope, tra- 
versed the greater part of Europe, enkindling all 
with the fire which burned in his own bosom. 
Urban 11. held a preparatory council at Piacenza, 
after which he convoked a more solemn one at Cler- 
mont, in Auvergne. Tavo hundred and thirty-nine 
archbishops and bishops attended. Several thou- 
sand lords and countless numbers of people en- 
camped around the city. On the seventh day Ur- 
ban addressed the multitude in a discourse so pathetic 
that all present were overcome with emotion, and 
cried out with one voice : Dieii le veut — " God wills 
it ! God wills it ! " The greater number pledged 
themselves on the spot to go to the rescue of the 
Holy Land. They assumed as a distinctive mark a 
cross of red stuff fastened to the right shoulder; 



Fourth Epoch. 249 

hence the name Crusaders and Crusades. To secure 
the peace of Christendom during the war against the 
infidels, the Sovereign Pontiff solemnly renewed the 
Truce of God, and placed under the special protec- 
tion of the Church the families and possessions of 
the Crusaders. 

The cry of '' God wills it ! God wills it ! " re-echo- 
ing throughout Europe, roused unparalleled enthu- 
siasm. Every country furnished Crusaders. ^' Who 
has ever heard," exclaims a chronicler, *^ of so many 
tribes and tongues gathered together in one army : 
French, Flemish, Frisians, Gauls, Bretons, Allo- 
broges, Lorrainers, Germans, Bavarians, Normans, 
Scots, English, Aquitanians, Italians, Apulians, Ibe- 
rians, Danes, Greeks, Armenians ? Did a Breton or 
a, Teuton come to talk to me, not a word could I 
answer. But, though of divers tongues, we were as 
brethren and neighbors, having but one heart in the 
love of the Lord." 

Departure of the Crusaders for Coitstakti- 
i^oPLE (1096). — One hundred thousand Crusaders of 
every age and rank, led by Peter the Hermit and a 
Burgundian knight called Walter the Penniless, 
were the first to set out for the Holy Land. Observ- 
ing no discipline and living by plunder, they natu- 
rally found none but enemies along their way. 
Many were slain by the Hungarians ; others reached 
Asia Minor only to be exterminated by the Seljukian 
Turks. Peter the Hermit and three thousand of his 
followers were all that escaped the fury of the infidels. 

The regular army, however, advanced in three 
bodies toward Constantinople. The Lorrainers and 
Germans descended the valley of the Danube under 
the command of an already celebrated knight, God- 



250 History of tub Middle Ages. 

frey of Bouillon, cliike of Lower Lorraine. The Pro- 
venyuls, under Kaymond of St. Giles, count of Tou- 
louse, crossed Lombardy and Dalmatia ; with this 
army went the legate of the Holy See, Adhemar de 
Monteil, bishop of Puy. The French of Languedoc, 
under Eobert Curthose, duke of Normandy, a son of 
William the Conqueror, and Hugh of Vermandois, 
brother to the king of France, marched to the south 
of Italy, where they were joined before embarking 
by the flower of the Norman knights, commanded 
by Bohemond, prince of Taranto, and his cousin 
Tancred. Alexis Comnenus was appalled by the 
approach of so great a multitude of warriors. ** It 
seemed to us," said his daughter, the Princess Anna, 
**as if Euroj^e, torn up from its foundations, was 
hurled entire upon Asia." In order to be prepared 
for the encroachments of his powerful allies Alexis 
made a hostage of Hugh of Vermandois, who had 
been wrecked on the coast of Epirus. This perfidy 
would have brought him ruin had he not soon re- 
stored the French prince to liberty. As he particu- 
larly feared the enmity of Bohemond, son of Eobert 
Guiscard, he won him over by presents and induced 
the Crusaders to swear fealty to himself. The cere- 
mony took place in a vast plain under the walls of 
Constantinople ; there a throne had been raised, on 
which sat the emperor to receive homage. A certain 
lord, named Eobert of Paris, ascended and sat down 
beside the emperor, and, as his companions-in-arms 
asked him to come down, he exclaimed : " My troth ! 
here is a nice clown seated, while so many illustrious 
captains are standing." The Frenchman's words 
were interpreted to Alexis, who asked him who he 
was. " I am a Frenchman," replied Eobert, " of the 



Fourth Epoch. 251 

highest nobility. Near a church in my village is a 
place where the young fellows meet to try their 
strength, and, although I have often been there, not 
one ever dared to encounter me." Alexis, terrified 
by so bold an indifference, hastily closed the ceremo- 
ny, and was glad when he saw his dangerous friends 
well across the Bosphorus.- He had taken good care 
of his own interests, for the Crusaders had bound 
themselves to give over to him the cities that had 
formerly belonged to the empire, and to place their 
other conquests under his suzerainty. 

The Crusaders in" Asia Min^or axd Syria 
(1097-1098).— Six hundred thousand Crusaders, of 
whom one hundred thousand were knights, were en- 
camped on the i^lains of Nicaea. The sultan of Ico- 
nium, Kilij-Arslan (Lion's Sword), abandoned Nica^a, 
which opened its gates and was taken possession of 
by the Greeks. The sultan hoped to revenge him- 
self at Dorj'lffium, in Phrygia. At the head of one 
hundred and fifty thousand knights he suddenly at- 
tacked a division of the Christian army ; he would 
have cut it to pieces had not Godfrey of Bouillon ar- 
rived in time to snatch victory from him. Inces- 
santly harassed by the Turks, and suffering from 
thirst, the Crusaders made a painful march across 
the arid plains of Asia Minor; in a single day five 
hundred perished of thirst. To complete the disas- 
ter the Crusaders were on the point of turning their 
arms against one another on account of the city of 
Tarsus, which Baldwin, count of Flanders, brother 
to Godfrey of Bouillon, sought to wrest from Tan* 
cred. Baldwni, censured by all the leaders, with- 
drew from the army and set out to conquer Edessa, 
in Mesopotamia (1097). 



252 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

The army of the Crusaders entered Syria and 
laid siege to Antioch. This famous city, defended 
by thirty thousand Moslems, was surrounded by wide 
ditches and a parapet flanked by three hundred and 
sixty impregnable towers. The Christian knights 
failed in all their attacks. After eight months they 
almost despaired of taking the city, when Bohemond 
found means to enter it under cover of the darkness. 
As a reward he was made prince of Antioch (1098). 

Kerboga, sultan of Mosul, appeared at the head of 
three hundred thousand infidels. The Crusaders, 
besieged in their turn, were suffering from famine 
and contagious diseases, and they soon gave way to 
utter despair. Then a priest of Marseilles, Peter 
Bartholomew, announced that St. Andrew had ap- 
peared to him and revealed the spot in which the 
lance-head that pierced our Saviour's side was buried ; 
they dug in the place indicated and there found the 
point of a lance. This gave them new hope. Full 
of enthusiasm, they issued from the city, fell upon 
the infidels, killed one hundred thousand, and put 
the rest to flight. This brilliant victory laid Pales- 
tine open to the Crusaders. 

Foukdatio:n" of the Ki^^gdom of Jerusale^i 
(1099). — Combats, labors, and privations of all kinds 
had exhausted the Christian army, so that there re- 
mained but fifty thousand Crusaders able to bear 
arms. When they' reached the hills of Emmaus, 
and beheld Jerusalem afar off glowing in the rays of 
the rising sun, they threw themselves upon their 
faces in the dust and kissed the ground with re- 
spect ; then as they advanced, exhilarated with en- 
thusiasm, they shouted the watchword : ^' God wills 
it ! Grod wills it !" But their success was not at first 



Fourth Epoch. 253 

equal to their hopes; their advance was repulsed. 
The forty thousand infidels within had left nothing 
undone that could help the defence ; outside the walls 
they had filled up the wells and had changed the 
country into a desert. The Crusaders, in spite of 
heat, thirst, and hunger, cut down the trees of a 
distant forest and constructed moving towers higher 
than the ramparts of the enemy. After five weeks 
of toil and fighting they made a solemn procession 
around the city and prepared themselves, by fasting, 
for the final assault. Godfrey of Bouillon and Tan- 
cred, followed by the bravest knights, rushed upon 
the ramparts and took Jerusalem on Friday, at three 
in the afternoon (July 15, 1099). 

As soon as victory was certain and tranquillity re- 
stored the Crusaders, laying aside their arms and 
their blood-stained garments, went barefoot, weep- 
ing and striking their breasts, to the sepulchre of 
Jesus Christ in the Church of the Eesurrection. 
The chiefs met to elect a king able to preserve this 
precious conquest. The choice fell upon Godfrey of 
Bouillon, the most virtuous and valiant captain of 
the whole army. He was proclaimed king near the 
Holy Sepulchre. When a golden crown was offered 
him the pious hero refused it, saying : ^^ God forbid 
that I should wear a golden crown in the place where 
the King of kings was crowned with thorns !" 

The new kingdom of Jerusalem was divided into 
five great fiefs : the seigniory or kingdom of Jerusalem, 
the county of Edessa, the principalities of Antioch 
and of the Tiberiad, and the county of Tripoli. 
These great fiefs, which held directly from the crown, 
were subdivided into a great number of other fiefs, 
whose holders paid homage to the great feudatories. 



254 History of the Middle Ages. 

Tlie clergy, wlio held solely from the pope, obtained 
a fourtli ])cirt of Jerusiileni with numerous privileges. 
As most of the Crusaders spoke Romance, the new 
laws were drawn up in that language. They are 
known as the " Assizes of Jerusalem." 

The caliph of Cairo, having leagued with the Sel- 
jukians, endeavored to recover Palestine ; but a final 
defeat near Ascalon put an end to his hopes and 
crowned the king of Jerusalem with glory (1100). 
Godfrey de Bouillon died soon after, without issue. 
His brother, the count of Edessa, proclaimed king of 
Jerusalem under the name of Baldwin I. (1100-1118), 
made new conquests. His cousin and successor, 
Baldwin II. (1118-1131), extended the kingdom from 
the coast of Ascalon to Mount Taurus, and it never 
exceeded these limits. 

The Knights Hospitalers and the Tem- 
plars. — The Eastern Christians, constantly men- 
aced by the infidels, were neither sufficiently numer- 
ous nor disciplined to maintain themselves in their 
new conquests ; a permanent militia, combining 
in the highest degree the religious and military 
siiirit, was indispensable. Alongside of feudal chi- 
valry arose religious chivalry, whose members were 
both monks and soldiers. Of the thirty religious 
and military orders of the Middle Ages, the two 
most famous were instituted after the first Crusade. 
The Hospital of St. John the Baptist, founded in 
Jerusalem for sick pilgrims, became the cradle of 
the order of Hospitalers, whose first grand master 
was the blessed Gerard Thorn of Martiques (1100). 
Raymond du Puy, his successor, framed a rule 
founded on that of St. Augustine, and it was con- 
firmed by a bull of Pope Pascal 11. (1113). To 



Fourth Epoch. 255 

the three ordinary vows of obedience, poverty, and 
chastity was added the special vow of receiving, en- 
tertaining, and protecting pilgrims. Their habit 
was a black robe and mantle, with a white cross of 
eight points on the left shoulder ; the color of their 
shields was red. Forced to quit Jerusalem after 
the battle of Tiberias (1187), the Hospitalers at first 
withdrew to St. John of Acre, then to the island of 
Cyprus (1291-1310), next to the island of Khodes 
(1310-1522), and finally to the island of Malta, which 
was donated them by the Emperor Charles V. in 1530. 
Bonaparte, in his Egyptian expedition, occupied 
Malta (1798), and while there put an end to the po- 
litical existence of this famous order, known succes- 
sively as Hospitalers, Knights of St. John of Acre, 
Knights of Rhodes, and Knights of Malta. The 
order of Malta was re-established in the Pontifical 
States a few years after its suppression by Bonaparte, 
and it is still in existence. 

The order of Templars was founded by Hugh de 
Payens (1118) in a house near the ruins of Solornon's 
Temple ; hence the name Knights of the Temple, or 
Templars. The knights wore a white habit with a 
red cross, symbols of purity and martyrdom. Their 
rule, written under the direction of St. Bernard, was 
approved by Pope Honorius II. (1127). Besides the 
three ordinary vows of religion, the Templars made 
a special vow to exile themselves for ever from their- 
native land, and to wage unceasing war against the 
infidels ; they were always to face the enemy, even 
when one against three, never to ask quarter, sur- 
render for ransom, or yield an inch of wall or an inch 
of ground. The grand master withdrew from Jeru- 
salem to St. John of Acre (1187), then to the island 



256 JIjutoky of the Middle Ages. 

of Cyprus (121)1), and at last to Paris. The order of 
Templars became very rich, having at one time more 
than nine thousand domains in dilferent states of 
Europe. By an arrangement between Philip the 
Fair, king of France, and Pope Clement V. the or- 
der of Templars was suppressed at the Council of 
Vienne (1312). 

Sec. 2. Second Crusade (1147-1149); Louis VIL 
and Conrad 111.; Third Crusade (1189-1193); 
Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and 
Richard Cceur de Lion j the T'eutonic Knights. 

St. Bernard; Keverses of Conrad III. and 
Louis VII. (1147-1149).— The kingdom of Jerusa- 
lem, weakened by intestine divisions, was in danger 
of again falling into the power of the inlidels. Zen- 
ghi, the emir of Mosul, and his son Nureddin, 
founders of a new empire, had twice taken the city 
of Edessa and massacred over thirty thousand Chris- 
tians (1144-1146). Their fanatical troops spread 
consternation to the very walls of Jerusalem. The 
Eastern Christians again called upon their brethren 
of the AVest for help. St. Bernard, abbot of Clair- 
vaux., was commissioned by Pope Eugenius III. to 
preach a second Crusade. No one was better calcu- 
lated to induce Europe to undertake the holy war 
than this eminent servant of God ; his learning, his 
eloquence, and the austerity of his life had rendered 
him the oracle of Christendom. Louis VII., king 
of France, was the first whom he induced to assume 
the cross. In a war with the count of Champagne 
the royal troops had set fire to the church of Vitry, 
and the greater part of the inhabitants, who had fled 



Fourth Epoch, 257 

thither for refuge, perished in the flames. Louis 
VII., seized with remorse, thought the Crusade the 
surest means to exjjiate his crime. He hekl a great 
assembly at Vezehiy, and pkiced St. Bernard beside 
him on an immense pkitl'orm erected in the public 
square. The eloquent preacher excited the liveliest 
enthusiasm among his hearers, who pledged them- 
selves to set out for the Holy Land. The same suc- 
cess attended the diet of Speyer, where Conrad HI. 
and the German lords eagerly put on the cross. 

Conrad, setting out first, was hampered by the 
poor discipline of his troops and the perfidy of the 
Greeks. Having reached Asia Minor, he was be- 
trayed by his guides, who led him into defiles, where 
a large part of his army fell under the scimeter of 
the Turks. As he was retreating to Constantinople 
with the wreck of his army, he met the troops of 
France, who had descended the valley of the Danube. 
All the Crusaders expressed the same indignation at 
the Greeks, who were as cowardly as they were 
treacherous. ^^ These schismatics," said the bishop 
of Langres, '' are unable to defend Christendom and 
the Holy Sepulchre. A day will come when their 
baseness will betray Constantinoj^le, and thus open 
to th3 infidels the portals of the West." Notwith- 
standing the wise foresight and energetic counsel of 
the prelate, it was decided not to treat the Greeks 
according to their deserts. The Crusaders had 
come, they said, to expiate their own sins, not to 
punish those of others. Instead, however, of im- 
prudently marching through the interior of Asia 
Minor, as the Germans had done, the army followed 
the line of the coast as far as Ephesus. There King 
Louis VIL, whose bravery amounted to rashness. 



258 HlSTOBY OF THE MiDDLE AGES. 

left the coast and ascended the valley of the Meaii' 
der. Attacked suddenly in a mountain delile, he 
lost the liower of his army, and would himself have 
perished had lie not displayed prodigies of valor. 
With great difficulty he reached the port of Adalia 
(Satalieh), in Anatolia, aiul tliere with tiie highest 
of the nobility embarked for Antioch. The other 
Crusaders, left to follow the land route, in vain 
strove to open a passage ; starved by the Greeks and 
harassed by the Turks, nearly all perished. 

Louis and Conrad, joining Baldwin III., King of 
Jerusalem, laid siege to the importimt city of Da- 
mascus. Their attempt failed through differences 
among the commanders and the treachery of the 
Christians of the country, who were bribed by Sara- 
cen gold. The king of France, having lost his army, 
was no sooner free from the coast of Palestine on his 
return to France than he fell into the hands of 
Greek pirates ; nor did he recover his liberty until 
after the intervention of King Roger of Sicily. St. 
Bernard, held responsible for these disasters, replied, 
very justly too, that the Crusaders and Eastern 
Christians had drawn down the wrath of God by 
their disorders, as the Israelites had done, who had 
been excluded from the Promised Land. 

Battle of Tiberias (IIST) ; Saladin's Tithe. — 
At the death of Xureddin (11 73), Saladin, one of his 
lieutenants, inherited his power and reunited Egypt 
to Syria. Founder of a new dynasty, called after 
his father the Ayubites, this able and fanatical 
sultan rendered himself as dear to the Mussulmans 
as he Avas formidable to the Christians. Having 
learned that Reginald of Chatillon, prince of Antioch, 
had seized one of his caravans, ho advanced to the 



Fourth Epoch. 259 

banks of the Jordan at the head of 100,000 infidels. 
The Christian army encountered him in the jjlain of 
Tiberias. The battle was hotly contested for two 
days ; but at last numbers prevailed. The true 
cross, Guy de Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, and the 
flower of the chivalry fell into the power of the 
victor. Saladin, who has been too often represented 
as a generous and humane enemy, with his own hand 
murdered the prince of Antioch, ordered the massa- 
cre of all the Templars and Hospitalers, and then 
had the other prisoners, bound with chains, march 
"before his throne. Far from admiring the heroism 
of these warriors, who, having faced death on the 
battle-field, now sighed for martyrdom, the cruel 
sultan required each of his emirs to slay a Christian 
knight in cold blood. Jerusalem, deprived of its 
bravest defenders, again passed under the Moslem 
yoke. Its liberation had lasted eighty-eight years. 
The news of this disaster threw the whole West 
into consternation. Pope Urban III. died of grief. 
His successor commissioned William., Archbishop of 
Tyre, to preach the third Crusade. Eepresentations 
of the Holy Sepulchre polluted by the Moslems were 
everywhere displayed. At this spectacle the faithful, 
deeply affected, struck their breasts, saying : " Woe 
to us ! " Only men fit for military service were en- 
listed for the Crusade ; the others w^re to assist by 
the pajment of what was called Saladin's tithe to de- 
fray the cost of the holy war. The three most power- 
ful sovereigns of Europe, Frederick Barbarossa, Em- 
peror of Germany, Philip Augustus, King of France, 
and Richard Cceur de Lion, King of England, took 
the cross w^ith the intention of uniting their forces 
in Palestine (1189). 



2G0 History of the Middle Ages. 

Third Crusade ; Death of Frederick Barba- 
ROSSA (1190) ; Siege and Capture of Acre (1189- 
1191). — Frederick Barbarossa descended tlie Danube, 
and by bis lirmness overcame Greek perfidy. Alter 
twice defeating tbe Seljukian sultan of Iconium, be 
captured bis capital, and crossed Asia Minor. Tbe 
Eastern Cbristians boped to find in bim a matcb for 
Saladin, but tbe emperor, going to batbe in tbe icy 
waters of tbe Cydnus, was droAvned not far from tbe 
spot wbere Alexander bad narrowly escaped tbe 
same fate. His deatb was a terrible blow to the 
German army. His son, Frederick of Suabia, led 
tbe remnants of bis forces into Palestine and joined 
Guy de Lusignan, wbo bad recovered bis liberty, and 
laid siege to Acre (Akka). 

Pbilip Augustus and Ricbard Coeur de Lion, em- 
barking one at Genoa and tbe otber at Marseilles, were 
wind-bound off Sicily tbrougbout tbe winter. A 
misunderstanding soon arose between tbe young 
princes, wbo were equally ambitious and rivals in glory 
and power. Eicbard, altbougb affianced to tbe sister 
of tbe king of France, espoused Berengaria of Nayarre 
at Cyprus (1191). Pbilip was stung to tbe quick, and 
being, moreover, nettled at tbe baugbty and quarrel- 
some disposition of bis vassal, seized tbe first oppor- 
tunity to set sail for tbe Holy Land. Eicbard, driven 
by a storm on to tbe island of Cyprus, wrested it 
from tbe Greeks and sold it to Guy de Lusignan, 
wbo bad been forced to relinquisb tbe title of king 
of Jerusalem. Eicbard's arrival under tbe walls of 
St. Jean d'Acre enabled tbe Crusaders to urge on 
tbe work of tbe siege. In vain Saladin summoned 
all Mussulmans to tbe boly war. Tbe garrison capit- 
ulated, and one of tbe first articles of tbe treaty was 



Fourth Epoch. 261 

that the infidels should restore the true cross. 
Richard, who had done so much for the success of 
the siege, was naturally irritated by the sight of Leo- 
pold of Austria's banner displayed on the summit of 
the tallest tower. He had it thrown into the moat. 
His hot temper again embroiled him with Philip 
Auo-ustus, who took the first opportunity of return- 
ing to France. 

Richard Coeur de Lion remained in Palestine with 
one hundred thousand Crusaders, and for two years 
distinguished himself by heroic exploits. After de- 
feating Saladin and conquering nearly all the cities 
of the coast he signed a truce which secured the 
Christians in the possession of the coast between 
Tyre and Jaffa (Joppa), with liberty to yisit the 
Holy Places free from tribute. But Richard left 
Jerusalem in the power of the Moslems. One day, 
when from a hill-top the city was pointed out to him 
on the horizon, he covered his eyes, saying : " 
Lord God ! I am not worthy to behold the Holy City, 
since I cannot deliver it from the yoke of the infi- 
dels." Never, however, had a Crusader displayed 
more valor. Ho was often seen struggling, single- 
handed, with a host of infidels, and on returning 
from the combat his armor so bristled with 
arrows that an eye-witness compares him to a pin- 
cushion set with needles. The Sire de Joinville, 
who visited the Holy Land sixty years afterwards, tes- 
tifies to the terror even then inspired by the name of 
Richard Co^ur de Lion. '' When Saracen steeds shied 
at a bush their masters would say : ^ Ha ! dost see 
King Richard of England ? ' And Saracen mothers 
quieted their children when crying by saying : ' Hold 
your tongue, or I'll call King Richard to kill you.' " 



203 History of the Middle Ages. 

A tempest drove Richard upon the Dalmatian 
coast, and, as he endeavored to cross Anstria in tlic 
disguise of a pilgrim, he was recognized and arrested. 
Duke Leopold, to avenge the affront of Acre, deliver- 
ed him up to liis enemy, tlie Emperor Henry VI., who 
kept him a prisoner. At first it was not known 
what had become of the king of England. Accord- 
ing to a popular legend, Blondel, a minstrel who had 
long been the attendant of the king, traversed Ger- 
many to discover the place of his caj^tivity. Stop- 
ping under every fortress, the minstrel would sing a 
ballad Avhicli he had composed with his master. . At 
last he had one day the joy of hearing the voice cf 
the royal prisoner answering to his own, and tlic de- 
liverance was effected. It is certain that the empe- 
ror, at the solicitation of the pope, set Kichard at 
liberty and reduced the price set for his ransom 
(1194). While the Christian hero of the third Cru- 
sade was languishing in a prison. Saladin, the hero 
of the Mussulmans, was giving a not less memorable 
lesson of the vanity of human gi-eatness. Finding 
himself stricken by a fatal disease, the sultan, in the 
place of his standard, had his winding-sheet displayed, 
while the herald who bore this funereal ensign cried 
out to the passers-by: " Behold, Saladin, conqueror of 
the East, of all his conquests takes naught with him 
but this.'^ 

FOUNDATIOI^ OF THE TeTJTO]S"IC ORDER (1190). — 

During the third Crusade Frederick of Suabia found- 
ed under the walls of St. Jean d'Acre a new religious 
and military order. Known at first under the name 
of Teutonic Hospital of the Blessed Virgin of Jeru- 
salem, this order, approved by Pope Celestine III., 
followed the rule of the Hospitalers in the practice of 



Fourth Epoch. 2G3 

the duties of charity, and in military discipline that 
of the TenqDlars. The first grand master was Henry 
AValpot, a German noble. All the knights were to be 
of noble blood and of German birth. Their costume 
was a white mantle with a black cross on the left 
shoulder. In recompense* for their valor before 
Damietta, John of Brienne authorized their grand 
master to assume the golden cross of Jerusalem in 
addition to the black cross. In 1226 the Teutonic 
knights took the vow to wage war against the Prus- 
sian idolaters. In 1525 Albert of Brandenburg, one 
of the grand masters, having apostatized, secularized 
the possessions of the order, which was not definitive- 
ly abolished until 1809. 

Sec. 3. Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) ; Foundation of 
tlie Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204-1261); 
Fifth (1217-1221) and Sixth (1228) Crusades. 

The Crusaders and the Eepublic of Venice ; 
Capture of Zara (1202). — The empire of Saladin, 
divided among his sons, seemed on the brink of 
immediate ruin ; but his brother, Malek-el-Adel, 
having become sole master of it, announced his in- 
tention of driving the Christians from the East. 
Pope Innocent III. commissioned a French priest', 
Pulk of Neuilly, to preach the Crusade. The prin- 
cipal lords who took the cross were Baldwin, count of 
Planders ; Boniface, marquis of Montferrat ; Theobald, 
count of Champagne ; Simon, count of Montfort ; 
and Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne, one of the 
heroes and the historian of the fourth Crusade. The 
ranks of the Crusaders soon swelled to four thousand 
knights and twenty thousand men-at-arms. It was 
decided to take the sea route to attack Egypt, the 



264 History of the Middle Ages. 

bulwark of Isliim and key of Palestine. The Vene- 
tians agreed to furnish a fleet of fifty galleys, but 
they could not put aside their mercantile si)irit, and 
wanted eight hundred thousand dollars for a three 
months' voyage. The Crusaders, unable to raise so 
largo a sum, in lieu of it agreed to reduce Zara to 
Venetian dominion. This i^lace had been given up 
to the king of Hungary, who also had sworn to go to 
the Holy Land. In vain did Innocent III. condemn 
the mercenary policy of the Venetians ; in vain did 
he remind the Crusaders of their vow to wage war 
against none but the infidels. To banish every 
scruple the doge of the republic, Henry Dandolo, 
though blind and ninety years old, enrolled himself 
for the Crusade. Zara was besieged, taken by as- 
sault and pillaged, and w^as made the winter quarters 
of the army. 

Taking of Co:n^stantinople (1203 axd 1204) ; 
Division of the Greek Empire. — Alexis, son of 
Isaac Angclus, Emperor of the East, begged the aid 
of the Venetians and Crusaders to replace his hapless 
father, whom a usurper had driven from the throne 
and imprisoned. The young prince promised to 
reunite the (rreek to the Latin Church, and to do 
his best for the conquest of the Holy Land. It was 
easy to secure the Venetians, who detested the 
usurper on account of his favoring their rivals, the 
Pisans. The Crusaders, deaf to the w^arnings of 
Innocent III., advanced upon Constantinople, which 
they found almost without defenders. They took 
the city by assault (1203). The usurper fled, and 
the young Alexis was proclaimed emperor jointly 
with his father. But that prince was driven to 
pledge some of his subjects for money, and this 



Fourth Epoch. 265 

caused so much dissatisfaction tliat lie Y\^as deposed 
and strangled by one of his officers, Ducas Murzu- 
phlus, who became emperor under the name of 
Alexis V. The Crusaders, disappointed of their 
hire, again attacked Constantinople, which they took 
by assault and pillaged. Murzuphlus^ being cap- 
tured, was hurled from the column of Theodosius 
(1204). 

The conquerors, after destroying the Greek Em- 
pire, divided it amongst themselves. Twelve elec- 
tors, authorized to name an emperor, chose Baldwin 
IX., Count of Flanders, whose share was a fourth of 
the empire ; the remaining three-fourths were halved 
betw^een the Venetians and the Crusaders. The Ve- 
netians received three suburbs of Constantinople, the 
coasts of the Euxine (Black) Sea and of the Helles- 
i:)ont, the Cyclades, the Sporades, the islands and 
the shore of the Adriatic Sea, some cities of Thrace, 
and, finally, the island of Crete, which they pur- 
chased of the Marquis of Montferrat. The doge 
took the title of ^^lord of one-fourth and a half of 
the Eoman Empire " (three-eighths), which title was 
borne by the successors of Henry Dandolo until 
135G. 

The remaining fourth and a half w^as divided 
among the principal chiefs of the Crusaders. Boni- 
face, Marquis of Montferrat, received the kingdom 
of Macedonia ; the historian Villehardouin was made 
marshal of Eoumania ; the lordship of Negropont 
fell to Jacques d'Avesnes, but it soon passed into the 
possession of Venice. A nobleman of the house of 
Champagne had for his share the principality of 
Achaia, on wdiich depended the duchy of Athens, the 
county of Thebes, the marquisate of Corinth, etc. 



266 History OF TUE Middle Ages. 

Tlie feudal hierarchy was fully established on the 
territory of the ancient republics of Greece. Tlie 
new empire adopted for its constitution the ^^ Assizes 
of Jerusalem." 

This empire lasted but fifty-seven years. It wris 
first attacked by the Bulgarians, who gained a bril- 
liant victory under the walls of Adrianople (1205) ; 
the Emperor Baldwin I. was taken prisoner, and died 
soon after in captivity. The Greeks, however, were 
the most dangerous enemies of the Latin Empire of 
Constantinople. With the few provinces they had 
saved from the wreck of their ancient empire they 
founded the principality of Epirus, or Albania, and 
the empires of Nicaea and of Trebizond. The suc- 
cessors of Baldwin I. were at last restricted to tlieir 
capital. His nephew, Baldwin II. (1228-12G1), was 
reduced to sell the lead of his palace, and to send 
precious relics to the Western princes, to obtain suc- 
cor against the Greeks. St. Louis got the crown of 
thorns (1238), for which he built a beautiful shrine, 
the Saintc Chapelle, at Paris. Baldwin II., not hav- 
ing obtained sufficient aid, was driven from Constan- 
tinople by Michael Pala3ologus, Emperor of Nicaea, 
who founded a new Greek Empire that lasted one 
hundred and ninety-two years (12G1-1453). 

The Children's Crusade (1212); Fifth Crusade 
(1217-1221); Andrew IL and John of Brienne.— 
According as the failures of the Crusades came to be 
attributed to the selfishness and misconduct of the 
Crusaders, the opinion gained ground in Europe that 
the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre was reserved for in- 
nocent hands. Accordingly, fifty thousand children, 
it is said, mostly German and French, leaving par- 
ents and country, set out for the Holy Land (1212). 



FouiiTH Epoch. 267 

Some soon died of liunger and fatigne, wliile others 
were shipwrecked or fell into the power of the Sara- 
cens through the treachery and deceit of some of the 
leaders of this crusade, and were sold as slaves. 
Innocent III., unable to help these unfortunate 
children, made an earnest appeal in the Lateran 
Council (1215) for a new Crusade. Erederick II., Em- 
peror of Germany, promised to be its leader, but 
broke his word. Then Andrew II., King of Hunga- 
ry, took command of the Christian army. Landing 
in Palestine, he at onco marched against the Mus- 
sulmans entrenched on Mount Thabor. One check 
disheartened this irresolute monarch, and he made 
haste back to Europe. 

John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem, led 
the crusading army into Egypt, and after a two 
years' siege took Damietta (1218-1219). This Avas a 
very important conquest. The sultan of Egypt, 
Malek-el-Kamel, a son of Malek-el-Adel, offered to 
surrender Jerusalem and to pay tribute. These pro- 
positions were the more advantageous as the sultan, 
naturally humane and generous, had just given a 
friendly reception to St. Erancis of Assisi. King 
John of Brienne and the other chiefs were inclined 
to accept them ; but the legate Pelagius wished to 
march upon Cairo. The army advanced between 
two arms of the Nile, at the very time that the river, 
which furnishes the wealth and the defence of the 
country, was overflowing. The Crusaders' camp was 
soon submerged and themselves in danger of either 
dying of hunger or of being drowned in the rising 
waters. '^Then John of Brienne," says a contempo- 
rary historian, ** went forth, unattended, from the 
Christian camp to that of the infidels. He entered 



2G8 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

it alone, his royal casque on his head, sought the 
sultan's tent, lifted the lajjpel, and, without uttering 
a word, sat down in a corner of the apartment, 
where Malek-el-Kamcl himself was reclining. The 
sultan showed no surprise, and howed his head to 
him. The slaves withdrew and both sovereigns re- 
mained seated, keeping a respectful silence. After 
several moments Malck perceived tears coursing 
down the cheeks of the king of Jerusalem. ^ Sire 
king/ said he, 'why wcejoest thou?' 'Sire 
king,' replied John, ' God has given me a people to 
guide and to guard, and I see that people drowning 
and starving ; therefor do I weep.' Then the 
sultan shed tears, and, clapping his hands, his slaves 
re-entered. He gave orders to take to the Christian 
camp for the next four following days thirty thou- 
sand loaves for the rich and the poor ; then, turning 
to King John, he said : ' The Lord is great and 
mercifuL' " 

Before the end of the four days peace was con- 
cluded ; the Crusaders obtained leave to re-embark 
for Palestine, on condition of surrendering Damietta 
and maintaining peace with the sultan for eight 
years. 

Sixth Crusade ; Fkederick: II. (1228). — John of 
Brienne, having bound himself never more to bear 
arms against the infidels, ceded to his son-in-law, 
Frederick II., the title of king of Jerusalem. ]^ot- 
withstanding this additional motive for keeping his 
promise to conduct a crusade, the German emperor 
continually found new pretexts for staying at home. 
At last, being excommunicated by Gregory IX., he 
decided to embark. Scarcely landed at Su Jean 
d'Acre, he began to negotiate instead of fighting. 



Fourth Epoch, 2G9 

Tlie sultan of Egypt consented to cede to him Jeru- 
salem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Tyre, and Sidon, on 
condition that the Mussulmans should have liberty 
of worship in those places. When Frederick had 
made his entrance into Jerusalem he found no bishop 
who would consent to crown an excommunicated 
prince ; he therefore put on the* crown with his own 
hands, and then made haste back to Europe, leaving 
the Eastern Christians scandalized at his indiffer- 
ence to the welfare of the Church in the East. 

Sec. 4. The Two Crusades of St. Louis ; Results of 
the Crusades ; Chivalry. 

SEYE2y"TH Ceusade (1248-1254) ; St. Louis 12^ 
Egypt a^td li^ Palestine. — Barbarous hordes, 
driven out of Turkistan by the Mo'tigols, and known 
as Khorasmians, had invaded Palestine under the 
protection of the sultan of Egypt. Jerusalem fell 
into their hands and the Holy Sepulchre was pro- 
faned. On these tidings Pope Innocent IV., who 
was presiding at the Council of Lyons, preached the 
holy war himself. Louis IX., King of France, was 
the only prince in Europe that responded to the ap- 
peal. During a serious illness he fell into a long 
swoon and was thought dead ; as soon as he revived 
he vowed to take the cross and to employ his arms 
in the deliverance of the Eastern Christians (1245). 
After four years of preparation he embarked at 
Aigues-Mortes with his wife, Margaret, and his bro- 
thers. The fleet sailed to Cj^prus, where all the 
Crusaders, to the number of forty-five thousand, were 
to assemble. It was decided to undertake the con- 
quest of Egypt first, as the surest means of weaken- 
ing the power of the sultan of Cairo, who v/as then 



270 History of the Middle Ages, 

master of Jerusalem. A countless army of Sara- 
cens covered the whole coast about the mouths of 
the Xile, presenting an immense forest of spears and 
swords. But this spectacle only aroused the ardor 
of Louis. Without waiting till his vessel had 
touched the shore, he jumped into the sea, sword 
in hand ; his soldiers followed him, and in a mo- 
ment the army of the infidels, already j^anic-stricken, 
turned and fled. The strongly-fortified city of 
Damietta immediately opened its gates to the Cru- 
saders. They made their entry in procession, bare- 
footed, the king marching at their head, and ^11 
singing hymns of thanksgiving for so glorious a 
da3^(1249). 

Louis remained five months at Damietta, awaiting 
reinforcements. This delay was unfortunate for 
his army, which lost its discipline and was attacked 
with an epidemic disease. On the march to Cairo 
the army was supported on its flank by the fleet, 
which ascended the Nile, but its advance was check- 
ed step by step by the Saracens, who defended every 
available canal. It required nearly a month to 
make ten miles. The Saracens in this campaign 
made great use of the Greek fire, Avhich was a com- 
position almost the same as our gunpowder. Not 
far from Mansurah the cavalry, having succeeded 
in fording a wide canal, suddenly fell upon the in- 
fidels and put them to flight. The victory would 
have been complete had the king's brother, the 
Count of Artois, tempered his valor by prudence. 
As he hotly jiursued the fugitives, he entered the 
city of Mansurah almost along with them. He was 
accompanied by the flower of the Christian knights, 
but, being surrounded and outnumbered by the Sara- 



Fourth Epoch. 271 

cens, tlicy were cut to pieces (1250). After tliis 
fatiil day it was necessary to tliink of retreat ; but 
the enemy threatened to cut off all communication 
between the camp and Damietta. To fill their 
measure of woe, the dead bodies, heaj^ed along the 
banks of the Nile, corrupted the waters, and pesti- 
lence joined Avith famine to decimate the army of 
the Crusaders. It .soon became impossible to with- 
stand the incessant attacks of the Saracens. The 
king himself, worn out by fatigue and sickness, was 
made prisoner with his two brothers. He apjieared 
as great in chains as on the .throne, conducting 
himself as a Christian whose God is his all, as a 
hero Avhose soul rises superior to misfortune. The 
most terrible menaces failed to daunt his spirit ; 
even the infidels esteemed him as the most intrepid 
Christian of the West. Struck with respect and 
admiration for their captive, they even deliberated 
whether they should not offer him the throne of 
Egypt, then vacant by the death of the sultan. 
They at last decided to make a treaty of peace with 
him, on condition that he would give 400,000 livres 
(81,500,000) for the ransom of his felloAv-captives, 
and the city of Damietta for his own person, because 
*^ it was not meet," said he, ^'to ransom a king of 
France for money." 

As soon as Louis was free he sailed for Palestine, 
where he spent four years lavishing cares on the 
Christians and fortifying the places still in their 
power. The Old Man of the Mountain sought his 
alliance and sent him rich i^resents. The jnous 
monarch did not quit the Holy Land (1254) 
till the news reached him of the death of his 
Biother, Blanche of Castile, to whom he had left 



272 History of the ^Iiddle Ages. 

tlic title of regent and the government of liis king- 
dom. 

Eighth Crusade (1270) ; St. Louis before Tu- 
nis. — St. Louis still wore the cross, and wiis bent 
on a fresh exjoedition against the infidels. The sad 
tidings spread throughout Europe that Bibars-Bun- 
dokdar, one of the conquerors of Mansurah, had be- 
come sultan of Egypt and was extending his con- 
quests into Palestine. Acre was now the only city 
left to the Eastern Christians. Just at this time 
the French king's brother, Charles of Anjou, who 
had become master, of the Two Sicilies, announced 
that the king of Tunis was disposed to receive bap- 
tism if a Christian army should hmd in his domin- 
ions. St. Louis thought the occasion favorable. 
After providing for the safety of his kingdom he 
sailed from Aigues-Mortes for Africa. While en- 
camped on the ruins of Carthage he discovered, to 
his sorrow, that the king of Tunis, far from being 
an ally, was a formidable enemy. It became neces- 
sary to lay siege to Tunis, which defended itself 
bravely. Soon the excessive heat, bad water, and 
worse provisions filled the camp with malignant 
fevers that carried off nearly half the army. The 
king himself was seized with illness, and he felt that 
it was to be mortal. He bore up under this final 
conflict with all the magnanimity of a Christian 
hero. Ever true to himself, and equal to all emer- 
gencies, he omitted none of the functions of royalty. 
When he felt his end approaching he gave his son 
and heir, Philip, wholesome counsels. Then he had 
himself laid on ashes, and crossing his arms upon his 
breast, and raising his eyes to heaven, he breathed 
his last, repeating the words of the Psalmist : " I 



> Fourth Epoch, 273 

shall go into tliy house, Lord, and adore thee in 
thy holy temple '' (1270). 

Philip III., the new king of France, aided by his 
uncle, Charles of Anjou, concluded an honorable 
peace. The king of Tunis was required to pay the 
costs of the war, to liberate several thousand Chris- 
tian captives, and to grant the free exercise of Ca- 
tholic worship throughout his states. These con- 
cessions gloriously ended the last Crusade. Twenty 
years later (1291) the Eastern Christians lost Acre, 
their sole remaining city in Palestine. 

Material, Political, A:srD Eeligious Eesults 
OF the Ceusades. — At the end of the thirteenth 
century Christian Europe had lost all her conquests 
in the East. Most of the Crusades had ended in 
disaster, as might naturally be expected from the 
character of those distant expeditions, the perfidy of 
the Greeks, and the disorders too common among 
the Crusaders themselves. However, we should err 
in supposing that so many thousands of men and 
immense treasures were sacrificed in vain. The 
Crusades resulted beneficially, eA'cn in a material 
point of view, for the nations that had undertaken 
them. Commerce between Europe and Asia, till 
then monopolized by the Arabs, was diverted from 
them by the great maritime cities of France and 
Italy. Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Marseilles were put 
in direct communication with the ports of the Le- 
vant. Their vessels were freighted with gold, silk, 
perfumes, ivory, etc. — the rich products of Asia, 
These precious commodities, spread throughout Eu- 
rope, stimulated manufactures either for the ex- 
change pi. products wdtli remote nations or in the 
imitation of certain fabrics of the East, as tissues 



274 History of the Middle Ages. 

and Damask steel, the cultivation of the mulberry- 
tree and of the silk-worm, cotton stuffs, saffron and 
indigo, dyes, etc. Venice learned the secret of 
glass-making from the Tyrians, and looking-glasses 
soon suj)erseded metallic mirrors. The windmill, 
which produces regular motion from the most capri- 
cious of elements, was brought from Asia by the 
Crusaders. 

The Crusades had a good effect on the political situ- 
ation of Europe, and, as long as they lasted, prevent- 
ed the advance of the infidels upon Constantinople, 
and in a strategic point of view were a diversion use- 
ful in the struggle against the Moors of Spain ; they 
ended, or suspended, wars between Christian kings ; 
they extinguished civil wars by turning against the 
common foe the arms wdiicli Christians employed to 
destroy one another. The Crusades contributed also 
to the unity of Europe by enrolling all nations and 
ranks under one standard to share the same senti- 
ments and the same trials and dangers. 

The Crusades, inspired by a religious motive, aug- 
mented the influence of the Holy Bee and of the 
clergy throughout the West. JSTever was the union 
between the Church and society so intimate ; never 
has there been eo splendid a proof that the true faith 
is the strongest bond of social union and the most 
powerful incentive to heroism. Europe, till then in- 
vaded by barbarians upon all sides, arose as one man 
at the cry of '' God wills it I" and in turn became 
an invader. In her first transport she repulsed the 
infidels of the East ; she planted the standard of 
the cross on Calvary, and sent intrepid missionaries 
to bear the light of the Gospel to the extremities of 
Asia. But if the Crusades served to propagate the 



Fourth Epoch. 275 

faitli, tliey were still more useful in the admirable 
examples of virtue wliicli they exhibited to the na- 
tions of the AVest. For most of the Crusaders they 
were a magnanimous struggle in which they sacri- 
ficed all their worldly interests to the cause of faith 
and of eternity. Never did so many princes and 
lords leave possessions, family, and country, with no 
other prospect on earth than the perils of a distant 
voyage and a deadly war with unbelievers. This 
sublime spectacle transported souls and lifted them 
to heaven. But the glory of God was promoted not 
only by the arms of the Crusaders but also by science, 
in the immense labors of scholastic theology, by the fine 
arts in the rearing of magnificent cathedrals, by the 
theatre in the edifying representation of the Myste- 
ries, by poesy in the chants consecrated to the ex- 
ploits of Christian heroes against the Saracens. 
Charlemagne and his paladins, Arthur and the 
Knights of the Bound Table, were celebrated as 
models of all Christian and chivalrous virtues ; the 
Spanish Eomanceros, the German poems, and even 
Dante's Divine Comedy, received their inspiration 
from the holy wars. France surpassed all other na- 
tions in the number of her poets and the popularity 
of her epic songs ; her language was formed by the 
graceful pen of the chroniclers of the Crusades, Ville- 
hardouin and Joinville. Thus was she recompensed 
for the glorious part she had sustained in the Cru- 
sades. 

Chivalry. — Chivalry, of which some traces are 
found in the time of Charlemagne, did not really 
flourish till the feudal system prevailed, and partic- 
ularly till the age of the Crusades. The rank of 
knight was attained only after long trials. At the 



27G History of the Middle Ages, 

i\rrQ of seven tlic cliilcl destined for tliis honorable 
militia entered the castle of some baron to serve him 
in quality of page or valet. To follow the castellan, 
or lord of the castle, and his lady to the chase, to 
launch and to lure the falcon, to wield the spear and 
the sword, to inure himself to the most arduous 
exercises, to listen to the minstrel singing the ex- 
ploits of ancient gallants, and to learn the precepts 
of religion and the loftiest examples of Christian 
virtue from the cliaplain — such was the training of 
the aspirant for knighthood. At fourteen he passed 
from the rank of page to that of esquire. Se then 
had charge of arms and steeds, accompanied the 
castellan in his journeys and to war, and tried to 
distinguish himself by some achievement. At twen- 
ty-one he could be armed as a knight. After a 
bath, the symbol of purity, he received successively 
a white tunic, denoting the innocence which he was 
to preserve ; a red robe, the blood he would have to 
shed ; a black robe, 'the death which awaited him. 
A fast of twenty-four hours prepared him for the 
sacraments of penance and the Eucharist ; then came 
the vigil of arms, which consisted in passing the 
night in the cliurch at prayer. On the day of the 
ceremony, after Mass and the sermon, the priest 
presented a blessed sword to tlie future knight, who 
Vv-ent and knelt before the lord, and solemnly vowed 
to sacrifice his possessions and very life for religion, 
the defence of widows and orphans, and, in general, 
of all the distressed. The lord struck him thrice 
upon the shoulder with the flat of his sword, saying : 
'' I dub thee knight in the name of the Father, and 
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," after which he 
gave him the accolade, or fraternal embrace, and 



Fourth Epoch. 277 

girded on liis sword. His two sponsors of arms then 
invested him with all his armor, and put on him the 
gilt spurs. The new knight, vaulting on to his 
steed, displayed his agility and skill before the mul- 
titude assembled on the castle grounds. A tourna- 
ment ordinarily closed the ceremony. 

The knight who had incurred felony by failing in 
his duties underAvent the infamous penalty of 
degradation. In presence of twenty or thirty 
knights without reproach, a king-at-arms accused 
him of broken faith. He was mounted on a scaffold, 
where he remained standing in full armor, having 
before him his shield reversed and hanging to a 
stake. Beside him twelve priests in surplices chant- 
ed the vigils of the dead. At the end of each psalm 
the heralds-at-arms stripped the condemned of some 
portion of his armor. When they had quite disarm- 
ed him they broke his shield, and the king-at-arms 
I)oured a basin of hot water over his head, as if to ef- 
face the sacred character of knighthood. The nn- 
happy man was then let down by a rope to tlie foot 
of the scaffold, where he was extended on a bier and 
covered with a pall. Finally the judges, clad in 
mourning, i3roceeded to the church, where the priests 
celebrated the Office of the Dead. 

This funeral ceremony sufficiently attests the 
esteem in which the title of knight was held. 
Knighthood, influenced by religion, formed a select 
militia which was animated with sentiments of faith 
and honor to protect the weak and the oppressed 
against the excesses of brute force. Hence it exerted 
an immense influence in all Christian nations. It 
softened manners, elevated the ideas of right and 
justice, gave the example of loyalty and courtesy. 



278 History of the Middle Ages. 

and lield up to society an ideal at once religious and 
military, which was quite unknown before its time, 
and still flourishes the most where the other traditions 
of knighthood have been the best preserved. 



CHAPTEE III. 
THE CRUSADES IN EUROPE. 

The sovereign pontiffs, while arousing Christian nations to the 
conquest of the holy places, preach other Crusades in Eu- 
rope against the Moors of Spain, the Albigenscs, and the 
pagans of the Baltic. 

Sec. 1. Crusades against the Moors of Spain; Alfonso 
VI., King of Castile (10G5-1109) ; Invasion of tlie 
Almoravides (1086-1146). 

During the struggle of the Christians of Spain 
against the Moors, which we may regard as a stand- 
ing crusade of nearly eight centuries (711-1492), 
the dismemberment of the caliphate of Cordova 
(1031) at one time seemed to betoken the immediate 
downfall of the infidel dominion. Ferdinand I. the 
Great, King of Castile, had seized this opportunity of 
extending the limits of his kingdom to the south ; 
but he unwisely divided it among his three sons 
(1065). The division and rivalry of Christian king- 
doms long prevented the deliverance of Spain. Al- 
fonso VI. the Brave, King of Leon and the Astu- 
rias, succeeded in despoiling his two brothers of Cas- 
tile and Galicia (1073), so that his power was equal 
to that of his father, Ferdinand. He assumed the 
title of emperor, and proved himself worthy of it by 



Fourth Epoch, ' 279 

his -wisdom and tlie exj)loits which gave him his 
surname of the '' Light and Buckler of Spain. " 
Aided by the Cid, he took Toledo after a memora- 
ble siege of five years (1085). This city, aptly styled 
the heart of Spain, became the capital of the king 
of Castile, who thenceforth threatened all the |)os- 
sessions of the Moors in the south of the peninsula. 
Fear impelled thirteen emirs, or Moorish kings, to 
implore the aid of the African Mussulmans, who 
thrice invaded Spain under the name of Almoravides, 
Almohades, and Merinides. 

The Almoravides, or religious belonging to a sect 
originating in the middle of the eleventh century, 
had destroyed the power of the Zeirites in the north- 
west of Africa. Yusuf, their chief, had founded 
Morocco (1070) and taken the title of prince of the 
Mussulmans. As the appeal of the Spanish Moors 
favored his ambitious projects, he responded to it, 
and fought a bloody battle with the king of Castile 
at Zelaca, near Badajoz (108G). Alfonso YI., not- 
withstanding his heroic courage, was utterly defeat- 
ed. The cruel Yusuf sent to the cities of his empire 
forty thousand Christian heads as trophies of his 
victory. The Moorish princes who had asked his 
help were forced either to lose their independence 
or to abandon their states, so that Mussulman Spain 
passed under the yoke of the Almoravides. Chris- 
tian Spain, however, opposed a spirited resistance. 
In response to the call of Alfonso YII. for help a 
great number of French knights, led by two princes 
of the house of Burgundy, flocked to his standards. 
In one year Henry of Burgundy founded the county 
of Portugal (1094) and the Cid dispossessed the 
infidels of the kingdom of Yalencia, which he kept 



280 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

till his death (1099).* Alfonso, by his prudence 
and activity, would have been well able to defend the 
frontiers of his kingdom had not a numerous army 
of Almoravides invaded New Castile. Age and in- 
firmities disabled the dauntless Alfonso from leading 
his army ; he therefore confided the command to 
his son, Don Sancho, then but eleven years old. The 
young 2^1'ince gave battle, but perished in the en- 
gagement, and his death involved the rout of the 
Castilians (1108). His aged father died of grief. 
The Almoravides, whose territory extended from 
the south of Morocco to the Ebro, vainly attempted 
to profit by the victory of Ucles, but they were 
checked by internal dissensions and the jirowess of 
the Christian knights, to whom the sovereign pon- 
tiffs granted the same indulgences as to the Crusa- 
ders of the East. 

rOU]S"DATIOK OF THE KlXGDO^H OF PORTUGAL 

(1094-1139). — Alfonso \l., in gratitude for services 
received from the French knights, gave two of his 
daughters, Urraca and Teresa, in marriage to the 
two princes of the house of Burgundy, Raymond, 
Count of Besan9on, and Henry, great-grandson of 
Robert, King of France. Henry received, as liis 
wife's dower, all the country between the Minho 
and the Mondego, which was erected into the county 
of Portugal under the suzerainty of the king of 
Castile (1094). The French prince gained seventeen 



* Tho Cid's widow, Ximcna, was able to hold her kingdom of Valencia 
only for thfree years. When she was driven out by the Almoravides she 
took away the mortai remains of her husband, and deposited them in the 
convent of San Pedro at Burgos. There were united all that could remind 
Spain of her glorious hero ; at his side rest the remains of his noble spouse 
and of his compauions-in-arms. Under the trees of the monastery is shoAvn 
the place where they buried his faithful courser, Babiosa. 



Fourth Epoch, 281 

victories oyer the Mussulmans. His son and suc- 
cessor, Affonso I. (1112-1185), resolved to extend 
the limits of Portugal beyond the Tagus. Haying 
crossed this riy^r, he encountered near Ourique fiye 
Moorish kings with a force ten times greater than 
his own, but the religious ardor of the Portuguese 
rendered them inyincible. Alfonso, after receiying 
by acclamation the title of king and a crown of leaves, 
marched against the infidels, and made such carnage 
among them that the five Moorish kings j^erished in 
their defeat (1139). The Cortes, or assembly, meet- 
ing at Lamego, confirmed the title given by the 
soldiers by declaring the crown hereditary in the 
family of Affonso. This pious monarch placed his 
kingdom under the suzerainty of the Holy See, and 
thus rendered it independent of Castile. He trans- 
ferred his residence from Coimbra to Lisbon, which 
he wrested from the infidels (1147). The terrified 
Moors for the second time called upon the Africans 
for aid against the king of Portugal and the other 
sovereigns of Christian Spain. 

Alfo]s^so L, El Batallador (1105-1134). — Al- 
fonso YIII., Eaymokdez (1126-1157).— Alfonso 
YL, King of Castile, had left the crown to his eld- 
est daughter, TJrraca, who was the widow of Eay- 
mond, but again married to Alfonso L, the Battler, 
King of Aragon and Navarre. Thus all the Chris- 
tian states of the peninsula were united under one scep- 
tre (1109), and Alfonso's only thought was to enlarge 
them at the expense of the infidels. But Urraca's 
opposition was Sj^ain's misfortune. This princess, 
of a haughty temper and of loose morals, excited re- 
bellion against her husband, separated from him 
(1114), and governed Castile alone in the name of 



282 History of the Middle Ages. 

lier son by lier former marriage, Alfonso A^III., Ray- 
mondez. Alfonso the Battler, conlined to the king- 
doms of Aragon and Navarre, continued his conquests 
over the Mussulmans ; he took Saragossa from them 
(1118) and made it his capital. AVhen Tarragona fell 
into his hands he became master of the valley of the 
Ebro. The Christians of Andalusia called upon him 
for help, and he set out from Saragossa, crossed Mos- 
lem Spain, and terrified the city of Granada, which 
he had the hardihood to besiege. In fulfilment of a 
vow made at the beginning of the crusade he went 
as far as the sea near Malaga, entered a bark, and in- 
dulged in the sport of fishing (1125). He desired to 
raise the courage of the Christians by showing them 
that a king of Aragon, if so disposed, might come 
all the way from Saragossa through an enemy's coun- 
try, and amuse himself fishing on the coasts of Africa 
just as if in his own dominions. This valiant mon- 
arch, victorious over the infidels in twenty-nine bat- 
tles, lost his life in the thirtieth. Aragon, weaken- 
ed by the loss of Navarre, which it had held for fifty- 
eight years (1076-113-1), was unable to carry on the 
struggle against the Mussulmans unless helped by 
the kins: of Castile. 

Alfonso VIIL, proclaimed king of Leon in 1112, 
had obtained also the government of Castile at the 
death of his mother, Urraca (112G). This prince 
'vvas worthy of founding the Burgundian dynasty. 
After repulsing the Moors of Aragon and enforcing 
his suzerainty in Navarre, he received from tlie Cortes 
of Leon the title of Emperor of Spain (1135). He 
extended the frontiers of his states towards the south, 
drove the infidels from Calatrava, and took from 
them even the city and port of Almeria ; and this 



Fourth Epoch, 283 

capture, occurring at the same time as tliat of Lis- 
bon, led to the invasion of the Almohades. 

The Almohades (1146-1248) ; Battle of Las- 
Navas de Tolosa (1212). — The Almohades, or uni- 
tarians, had founded, in the opening of the twelfth 
century, a religious and military sect which pro- 
fessed to restore in all its purity the worship of one 
God and to exterminate the Christians. Abd-el- 
Mumen, head of the Arabian dynasty of the Almo- 
hades, jDut an end to the sway of the Almoravidcs by 
seizing upon Morocco, after a siege which cost the 
lives of two hundred thousand inhabitants (1146). 
He wrested the cities of Tunis and Tripoli from the 
IS'ormans of Sicily, and soon extended his empire 
over all Northern Africa as far as Egypt. He had 
an equal hatred for the Almoravidcs and the Chris- 
tians. He made an alliance with the Moors to attack 
them in Andalusia. The conquest of this jorovince 
was completed after eleven years by the taking of 
Granada (1157) and by the defeat of Alfonso YIIL, 
who died of grief. 

This prince had unwisely divided his territories 
between his two sons, who became respectively kings 
of Castile and of Leon. The independence of the two 
crowns, which lasted seventy-three years (1157- 
1230), would have compromised the safety of Spain 
had it not been for the organization of a permanent 
militia, which offered the loftiest examples of reli- 
gious and patriotic devotion. Castile was defended 
by the military order of Calatrava (1158), to which 
was afterwards affiliated the order of Alcantara, 
founded in 1176. The king of Leon instituted the 
no less celebrated order of St. James (San Jago) of 
Compostella (1161). Affonso L, Henriquez, King of 



284 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

Portugal, liaving established the order of Avisa 
(IIGG), found the knights useful auxiliaries in repel- 
ling the attacks of the infidels. The king of the 
Almohades, who threatened Lisbon, was defeated 
and slain at Santarem (1184). Yacub, his son and 
heir, was more successful in the war against the 
king of Castile, Alfonso IX., the Magnanimous, the 
grandson of Alfonso Eaymondez. The battle of 
Alarcos (1095) cost the lives of thirty thousand 
Christians, and the king of Castile himself came near 
perishing ni this disaster. 

What rendered the power of the Almohades the 
more to be feared was their alliance with Sancho 
VII., King of Navarre, who counted on them to help 
extend his rule throughout Christian Spain. This- 
ambitious prince derived no other result from his 
defection than the loss of the three provinces of 
Biscay, Alava, and Guipuzcoa, which were taken 
from him by Alfonso IX. (1199) and joined to Cas- 
tile. Eemorse of conscience and the solicitations of 
the sovereign pontiff finally induced him to take 
part against the infidels. The new king of Morocco, 
Mohammed, son of Yacub, had proclaimed the holy 
war, and had set on foot an army of 000,000 men, at 
whose head he threatened a general invasion. Chris- 
tian Europe was alarmed. On the appeal of Inno- 
cent III. a host of Italian, German, and French 
Crusaders joined the Spaniards against the common 
foe. The army assembled around Toledo resolutely 
marched to the encounter of the Mussulmans. 
Prayer and the reception of the sacraments prei:>ared 
the warriors for a battle which was to decide the fate 
of Spain and of Christendom. From afar could be 
seen the countless troops of the enemy drawn up 



Fourth Epoch. , 285 

in the j)lains (Las Xavas) of Tolosa (July 16, 1212). 
King Mohammed, covered with a black mantle, with 
his sword in one hand and the Koran in the other, 
gave the signal of battle. At the first onslaught the 
vanguard of the Oastilians, overpowered by numbers, 
fell back upon the centre, but the Knights of the 
Temple and those of Calatrava retrieved the disad- 
vantage. Then Alfonso IX. ordered his royal ban- 
ner, bearing the image of the Blessed Virgin, to be 
unfurled alongside of the cross ; the archbishops of 
Toledo and aSTarbonne and other prelates passed 
along the ranks and animated the Crusaders. Driv- 
ing back the dense masses of the infidels, they pene- 
trated to the centre, which they found defended 
with iron chains. The Almohades there made a 
desperate resistance. But Alfonso, with Pedro II. 
of Aragon on his left, and Sancho YII. of Navarre 
on his right, burst the chains and hewed Moham- 
med's guard to pieces. Mohammed himself fled in 
great haste. "God alone is just," said he, "and 
the devil is perfidious." The remnant of his army, 
pursued during its four hours' retreat, was nearly 
annihilated ; the Mussulmans, according to their 
historians, lost on that day 500,000 men. The 
Christians, whose losses were trivial, took immense 
booty. The king of Castile sent the tent and stand- 
ard of Mohammed to Pope Innocent III., who placed 
these glorious trophies in the basilica of St. Peter. 
Every year in Toledo the feast of the " Triumph of 
the Cross " was celebrated in thanksgiving for this 
great victory, which saved Christian Sj)ain and broke 
the power of the Mussulmans. 

Enlargement of the eour Christian King- 
doms OE Spain ; James L, the Conqueror (1216- 



286 History of the 3Iii)dle Ages, 

1276) ; St. Ferdikaitd III. (1214-1252) ; ai^d Al- 
fonso X., THE Wise (1252-1284). — As all the Cliris- 
ticin kingdoms of Spain had contributed to the vic- 
tory of Tolosa, all were entitled, more or less, to the 
prolits. Sancho VII., King- of Kavarre, obtained of 
Alfonso X. the restitution of several important 
places, because, as he was surrounded on all sides by 
the kingdoms of Castile, France, and Aragon, he 
could not undertake conquests upon the infidels. 
At his death (1234) his nephew, Theobald IV., 
Count of Champagne, inherited Navarre. 

Portugal, already enlarged under Affonso I. by 
Estramadura and Alentejo, reached its modern limits 
by the conquest of Algarve (1264). 

Eaymond Berenger, Count of Barcelona, had 
espoused Petronilla, a niece of Alfonso the Battler. 
This founder of a new dynasty occupied the throne 
in 1137, and added the counties of Cerdagne and 
of Provence, as well as several fiefs of Languedoc, to 
the crown of Catalonia. His grandson, Pedro II. 
(1196-1213), acquired the seigniory of Montpellier 
also (1204), whose sole heiress he had espoused. 
This prince, who had distinguished himself by his 
courage against the infidels at Tolosa, jierished the 
following year fighting against the Albigenses. God 
reserved to his son, James I., the Conqueror, the 
honor of gathering the fruits of the victory of 
Tolosa. After the struggle of four years James I. 
remained master of the Balearic Isles (1233) and 
founded the kingdom of Majorca. He effected a 
not less important conquest by driving the infidels 
out of the kingdom of Valencia (1238). This great 
prince, as zealous in promoting the interests of reli- 
gion as those of his crown, was embarking for an 



Fourth Epoch. 287 

Eastern Crusade wlien a tempest drove his vessels 
upon tlie coasts of Aragon. At all events lie was en- 
abled to impose an annual tribute upon the Mussul- 
mans of Granada, Tlemcen, and Tunis. By the mar- 
riage of his eldest son to the daughter of Manfred 
he facilitated the reunion of Sicily. He was the 
first to understand that, as Aragon was hemmed in 
by Castile, it should extend its power upon the 
Mediterranean, as Portugal, in a like position, direct- 
ed its activity to the ocean and the African coast. 
Castile, in the centre, became the most powerful 
kingdom of Spain under Ferdinand III., the Saint 
(1217-1252), son of Alfonso, King of Leon. On the 
death of his father (1230) Ferdinand united Castile 
to the kingdom of Leon. Endowed with a courage 
equal to his piety and wisdom, he in person directed 
all his forces against the Almohades and the Moors 
of Andalusia. He took Cordova after a long siege 
(1235). His first care was to i3urify the principal 
mosque of the city and to dedicate it to the Virgin 
Mary, and he compelled the Moors to carry on their 
backs to Compostella the large bells which Al-Man- 
sur had brought to Cordova on the backs of Chris- 
tians. The holy king took no rest until he had com- 
pleted the triumph of the cross over Islam. After 
the taking of Jaen he made Ben Al-Hamar, founder 
of the kingdom of Granada, his tributary and vassal 
(1245). He laid siege to Seville for the purpose of 
depriving the Almohades of their last bulwark in 
Spain. This, too, was the most fertile and highly 
cultivated part of Andalusia. The inhabitants, 
having withdrawn into the city, made a brave resist- 
ance for nearly two years, when they were forced 
to capitulate, to the number of three hundred thou- 



28S History of tue Middle Ages. 

sand, and to seek refuge in the kingdom of Gra- 
nada. 

The king of Castile made a solemn entrance into 
Seville and ordered all the mosques to be transform- 
ed into churches. Xeres, Cadiz, and many other 
places were constrained to open their gates to the 
conqueror ; so tliat the kingdom of Castile extended 
across the peninsula from the Bay of Biscay to the 
Straits of Gibraltar. 

St. Ferdinand, in the ardor of his zeal, had formed 
the project of carrying the war into Africa. His 
fleet became mistress of the sea by a naval victory 
over Morocco (1251), but death snatched him away 
from the love of his subjects just as he was going to 
embark on a new crusade. This monarch's virtues 
still more than his conquests made him worthy to be 
compared to St. Louis, his cousin-german. Like the 
latter, he was a wise legislator ; he promulgated a 
fundamental law to prevent the division of the mon- 
archy, which was declared indivisible, with right of 
succession to the throne • by primogeniture. The 
protector of science and letters, he founded the Uni- 
versity of Salamanca. A touching instance of his 
solicitude for the happiness of his subjects is cited. 
Being counselled to levy an extraordinary tax on the 
occasion of a new war against the Moors, he exclaim- 
ed : " God forbid ! Providence will aid me by other 
means. I fear the sighs and tears of a poor woman 
more than all the armies of the Mussulmans." 

Alfonso X., surnamed the Wise or Learned (1252- 
1284), was nearly always at war, either to preserve 
his father's conquests or to repress the revolts of 
his subjects and of his near kinsmen. His brother 
having leagued against him with the emir of Niebla, 



Fourth Epoch, 289 

he laid siege to that place (1257). It was then, 
it is said, the Arabs used guDpowder for the first 
time ill Europe. Four years afterwards, on the 
same day and at the same hour, the Mussuhnans 
suddenly arose in Andalusia, seized arms, and mas- 
sacred the Christians. The king of Granada had 
instigated the revolt, hoping to recover his inde- 
pendence and to extend his petty kingdom. But 
James I., the Conqueror, father-in-law of Alfonso, 
completed the conquest of the kingdom of Murcia 
for Castile (1265). Alfonso himself, having defeat- 
ed the king of Granada, compelled him to pay 
tribute (1266). The Mussulmans were thus driven 
back between the coast and the kingdom of Castile, 
whose suzerainty they acknowledged. Alfonso im- 
prudently undertook to weaken them still more by 
disseminating a spirit of revolt among them, which 
only led them to invite a third invasion of Africans, 
the Merinides, who had overturned the power of the 
Almohades in Morocco. 

The vainglorious Alfonso also intrigued for the 
title of emperor of Germany. To gain partisans in 
the empire he ground down his subjects with oner- 
ous taxes, and even neglected to defend them against 
the Moors. But his youngest son, Don Sancho, who 
had distinguished himself against the infidels, raised 
the standard of revolt. Alfonso, despoiled of au- 
thority by his own son, died of grief. This prince 
left many remarkable writings, among others his 
astronomical tables, but his errors and misfortunes 
sufficiently prove that he was wanting in the quali- 
ties most essential for government. For preferring 
to study the motions of the heavenly bodies rather 
than the interests of his subjects Alfonso X. de- 



290 History OF THE Middle Ages. 

served this epitaph : '^ Whilst he contemplated the 
glory of the firmament, he lost that of earth." 

Sec. 2. Crusade against the Albigenses (1208-1229). 

The Heeesy oe the Albige^s'ses ; Assassi- 
iS'ATiOif OE Peter of Castelj^au (1208). — The 
heresy of the Albigenses took its name from the 
diocese of Albi, where it most prevailed. This 
heresy had been brought from the East by way of 
Bulgaria and Lombardy, whence it sj^read into Lan- 
guedoc and all the neighboring countries. It was 
derived from the Manicheans and Arians. It ad- 
mitted the existence of two principles, one good, 
the other evil ; it denied the divinity of Jesus 
Christ, rejected the ecclesiastical hierarchy, mar- 
riage and the other sacraments, and authorized ex- 
cesses not less subversive of society than of religion. 
Many regions in Languedoc were the theatre of the 
most grievous disorders, which the clergy, having 
lost all power, were unable to remedy. Churches 
were deserted and the priests exposed to all manner 
of outrages. The preaching of St. Dominic and 
other missionaries was powerless against the fanati- 
cism of the Albigenses. What added to the au- 
dacity of the sectaries was the sui)port given them 
by the principal lords of the country, the counts of 
Toulouse and Foix, the viscounts of Beam and of 
Beziers. Eaymond VI., Count of Toulouse, instead 
of heeding the salutary exhortations of Peter of Cas- 
telnau, a monk of Citcaux and legate of the Holy 
See, obstinately favored the progress of the danger- 
ous heresy. The legate launched a sentence of ex- 
communication against him. One of the count's 
followers took vengeance. Peter of Castelnau, while 



Fourth Epoch, 291 

crossing the Elione, fell under the blows of the 
assassin, saying : '' Forgive him, Lord ! as I for- 
give him." 

Pope Innocent III., watchful of the integrity of 
the Christian faith, kept alive the zeal of the king 
of France and of the bishops and missionaries whom 
he himself had sent to Languedoc. But the murder 
of his legate proved that he could no longer rely on 
persuasion ; he excommunicated the count of Tou- 
louse, and caused a crusade against the heretics to 
be preached. Their impiety and the violence they 
exercised upon Catholics had excited intense indig- 
nation, so that in a few weeks an army of fifty thou- 
sand Crusaders was assembled. 

SiMOiT DE MoKTFORT (1208-1218) ; Battle of 
MuEET (1213). — The duke of Burgundy and many 
other French lords took part in the crusade against 
the Albigenses ; but none seemed worthier of being 
commander-in-chief than Simon, Count of Montfort, 
who combined a lively faith with the bravery and 
loyalty of an accomplished knight. In the fourth 
Crusade he withdrew from his comrades-in-arms be- 
fore Zara to join the holy war in Palestine against 
the Mussulmans. His trust in God made him dar- 
ing and invincible on the battle-field. " The whole 
Church is praying for me," said he ; '^ I cannot fall." 
His prodigies of valor against the heretics won him 
the glorious surname of the ^*New Machabeus." 
With such a leader the crusaders marched against 
the Albigenses with enthusiasm. Eaymond VI., to 
save his dominions, had asked and obtained recon- 
ciliation with the Church. The war began in the 
territory of the viscount of Beziers, the self-willed 
fomenter of the heresy. The city of Beziers, taken 



292 History of the Middle Ages. 

by assault, was given up to fire and slaughter by the 
undisciplined bands who had accomimnied the cru- 
saders (1200). Carcassone, Albi, Pamiers, and seve- 
ral other places were successively forced to capitu- 
late. The viscount of Beziers, being made i^risoner, 
died soon after, and Simon de Montfort received his 
inheritance. 

A great number of crusaders had already quitted 
Languedoc. This was the oi^portunity Avhich Eay- 
mond YL awaited to take up arms. The success 
did not answer his exjoectations, and he repaired to 
Eome to interest Pope Innocent III. in his behalf. 
He there met with a kind reception ; but the legate 
and the Council of Aries proposed conditions which 
he refused to accept. War was rekindled with fresh 
fury. Simon, attacked in Castelnaudary by the 
counts of Toulouse and Foix, left the city at the 
head of a few knights, and fell upon his foes with 
such impetuosity that they were speedily routed 
(1212). In thanksgiving for this brilliant victory 
he returned barefoot to the church of Castelnaudar}^ 
Eaymond VI., trembling for his capital, asked the 
aid of Pedro II., King of Aragon. The latter has- 
tened to Languedoc with an army fifty thousand 
strong. His design was to seize the little place of 
Muret, defended by a feeble garrison ; but Simon, 
wishing to save it at all costs, hastened thither with 
only two tbousand men. Before the battle he laid 
his sword upon the altar and prayed thus : " Lord ! 
all unwortliy as I am, thou hast nevertheless chosen 
me to defend thy cause. I take this sword from thy 
altar ; grant that, wielding it for thy glory, I may 
wield it with justice." His skilful dispositions, as 
well as his irresistible courage, disconcerted the con- 



Fourth Epoch, 293 

federates from the first ; the death of the king of 
Aragon, their leader and a most redoubtable knight, 
com23leted their rout (1213). The conqueror, haying 
given public thanks to God, sold the dead king's 
armor and war-horse for the benefit of the poor. 

That day ruined the cause of Eaymond VI. The 
(Ecumenical Council of Lateran judged that but one 
man was able to defend the county of Toulouse 
against the scourge of heresy, and it therefore con- 
ferred it upon the conqueror of Muret, who received 
its investiture from Philip Augustus, King of France 
(1215). Eaymond, assisted by his son, continued 
hostilities ; he even got possession again of Toulouse. 
Simon de Montfort at once laid siege to that im- 
portant place. One morning, while he was in church, 
news was brought him that the garrison, by an 
abrupt sortie, had surprised his troops and was 
about to cut them to pieces. '' Let me," said he to 
the messenger, " first assist at the divine mysteries 
and behold the pledge of our redemption." When 
the priest had elevated the sacred Host the devout 
knight, on his knees and raising his hands to heaven, 
exclaimed: ''Now,- Lord, let thy servant depart"; 
then turning to his companions-in-arms, "Let us 
go," said he, ''and die, if needs be, for Him who 
vouchsafed to die for us." In a few moments he 
renewed the combat and drove the enemy beyond 
the city walls ; but a stone, hurled by an engine of 
the besieged, struck him on the head and killed him 
on the spot. The death of the Christian liero was 
followed by the retreat of the crusaders (1218). 

Amaury de Mo:n'tfort and Louis VIII. ; Treaty 
OF Paris (1229). — Simon's son Amaury had not the 
requisite qualities to defend his father's heritage. 



294 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

Abandoned by nearly all the knights, and constantly 
worsted by Eaymond, he ceded his rights to the 
king of France, Louis VIII., the Lion. Louis, at 
the head of fifty thousand men, laid siege to Avig- 
non, which capitulated after a vigorous resistance of 
three months. This event led to the conquest of all 
the country as far as Toulouse. Tlie sudden death 
of Louis (1220) afforded some respite to Eaymond 
YIL, the son and successor of Raymond VI. But, 
the young count, being surrounded by ruined or 
dispirited partisans, consented to a reconciliation 
with the Church, and signed tlie treaty of Meaux, 
which was ratified at Paris the following year. Eay- 
mond ceded to St. Louis Lower Languedoc, and to 
the Holy See the county of Venaissin, but he retain- 
ed the county of Toulouse, which, on his demise, was 
to form the dower of his daughter Jeanne, wife of 
Alfonso, the king's brother. This treaty secured the 
triumph of the true faith over heresy in Languedoc. 
The count of Toulouse, true to his word, acted with 
rigor towards the Albigenses ; the greater number 
abjured their errors, while others emigrated to Pro- 
vence, where they blended with the sectaries known 
as Waldenses, or Yaudois. 

Sec. 3. Crusades against the Pagans of the Baltic in 
the Thirteenth Century. 

COIS^YERSIOK OF LlYONIA AKD ESTHO]S"IA ; THE 

KxiGHTS OF THE SwoRD (1204-1237). — Ecligion, 
already flourishing in Northern Germany and 
Scandinavia, had not yet reached the savage tribes 
on the Baltic shores from the Vistula to the Gulf 
of Finland. Till the end of the twelfth century 
the savage humor of the pagans had opposed an 



Fourth Epoch, 395 

insurmountable obstacle to the zeal of the missiona- 
ries and the efforts of the Grerman knights who had 
taken the cross at the voice of Pope Celestine III. 
A canon of Bremen, Albert of Alperden, was more 
fortunate. Accompanied by new crusaders, he 
landed at the mouth of the Duna and founded Eiga, 
of which he was named bishop (1201). This judi- 
cious prelate, wishing to secure a prosperous future 
for religion, divided Livonia into fiefs, most of which 
he bestowed on such German lords as were able to 
repel the incursions of the pagans. The same thought 
also inspired him with the design of organizing a 
standing army to defend the country (1204). The 
new religious and military order, approved by Pope 
Innocent III. , followed the rule of the Templars. Its 
members, in the beginning called " Brothers of the 
Militia of Christ," or *' Knights of Livonia," are 
better known as ^^ Knights of the Sword," because two 
red swords were embroidered on their white mantle. 
They received a third of Livonia, with the right of 
possessing future conquests in the neighboring coun- 
try. A few years sufficed for the extirpation of pa- 
ganism in Livonia, which was erected into a fief and 
principality of the empire. The emperor, Philip of 
Suabia,. gave the investiture of it to the bishop of 
Riga. It was an admitted principle in the Middle 
Ages that the pope and emperor could dispose at 
will of the lands of pagans. 

The Esthonians, who dwelt in the north of Livo- 
nia, were forced to yield to the prowess of the Knights 
of the Sword and the Danish crusaders. Idolatry 
disappeared from their country (1223), and Albert 
of Alperden founded two bishoprics there. His dis- 
putes with the Knights of the Sword concerning 



296 History of the Middle Ages. 

episcopal jurisdiction induced these knights to unite 
themselves with the Teutonic Order. 

The Teutonic Order i:s" Prussia (1226-1283). 

The Prussians occupied all the country between the 
Vistula and the Niemen. They were a warlike peo- 
ple, who sacrificed human victims to their monstrous 
divinities. Their first apostle, St. Adalbert, Bishop 
of Prague, had the palm of martyrdom for his zeal 
(997). The Prussians remained in the darkness of 
paganism till a Polish prince of Culm protected the 
labors of a missionary named Christian, who became 
the first bishop of Prussia (1214). Pope Innocent 
III. authorized this prelate to employ the arms of 
the Crusaders against the attacks of the pagans. 
Still, a permanent militia was needed to hold in 
check indefatigable foes, and Christian founded the 
order of "Brothers of the Militia of Christ in 
Prussia" (1224). The new knights having nearly 
all perished in battle, appeal was made to the 
knights of the Teutonic Order, who received from 
Pope Ilonorius III. and the Emperor Frederick II. 
the country of Culm, with all the territory they 
could conquer from the pagans. From that time 
began a furious war which lasted half a century, not- 
withstanding constant help from German crusaders 
and from Ottocar II., King of Bohemia. The Prus- 
sians were supported by the Eussians and Lithua- 
nians, who remained idolaters till the end of the 
fourteenth century. Only in 1283 did all Prussia 
become Christian. The Teutonic Order had found- 
ed the already flourishing cities of Thorn, Marien- 
burg, and Konigsberg, which were successively the 
capitals of the country. The knights, enriched by 
their conquests, fell away from their primitive purity. 



Fourth Epoch, 297 

and their grand master, Albert of Brandenburg, em- 
braced the so-called reform of Luther to assume the 
title of prince of Prussia (1525). The Knights of 
the Sword then recovered their independence ; but 
thirty-six years later their grand master was guilty 
of scandalous apostasy, and the order ceased to 
exist (1561). 



CHAPTEE IV. 
FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND IRELAND. 

France and England, whose rivalry begins with William the 
Conqueror, present a striking contrast in their civil history ; 
in France Capetian royalty, at first feeble, continually grows 
in power up to the end of the thirteenth century; in Eng- 
land royalty, at first mighty, is forced, in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, to relinquish a part of its prerogatives. 

Sec. 1. Progress of Royalty in France ; EmancijMtion 
of Cities. 

Philip I. (1060-1108) ; Beginnii^g of the Ri- 
valry WITH England. — Philip I., son of Henry I., 
at the age of seven became king of France under the 
tutelage of his uncle, Baldwin, Count of Flanders. 
In a reign of forty-eight years this indolent 
prince made but one war, in person, to secure 
Flanders to the grandson of his guardian, and let 
himself be worsted at Cassel (1071). Although an 
indi:fferent spectator of the first Crusade and other 
stirring events of that epoch, he was uneasy at the 
great power of his vassal, the duke of Normandy, 
who had become king of England. If he dared not 
declare war against William the Conqueror, he 
sought at least to raise difficulties against him either 



298 History of the Middle Ages. 

by abetting the duke of Brittany, who refused hom- 
age, or by harboring his eldest son, llobert, surnamed 
Curt-Hose, or Short-Shanks, who claimed the duchy 
of Normandy. A coarse jest uttered by Philip on 
his corpulency served AVilliam as a pretext to march 
on Mantes, which he burnt ; but in the midst of the 
fire his horse stumbled, and he received a wound 
which hurried him to the tomb (1087). The king 
of France, rid of so dangerous an enemy, embroiled 
himself in fresh difficulties by his simony and scan- 
dalous conduct ; but he ended by being reconciled 
with the Church. 

Louis VL (1108-1137); Wars agaixst the 

BaROXS Ais^D AGAIIjfST THE Ei^^GLISH. — Louis VI. , 

the Fat, had scarcely ascended the throne than he 
succeeded in putting down the open brigandage of 
some of the barons, who amused themselves by ravag- 
ing the neighborhood of Paris. Widening his field 
of action little by little, he made his authority re- 
spected by the barons of the south, and even by tlie 
powerful duke of Aquitaine ; in the north he claim- 
ed suzerainty over the county of Flanders, the inves- 
titure of which he conferred on William Cliton, son 
of the unfortunate Robert Curt-Hose. Henry I. of 
England was offended by the protection given to a 
prince whom he persecuted, and he defeated the 
French king at Brenneville. Pope Calixtus IT., tlien 
a refugee in France, succeeded in reconciling the two 
rivals. But the Emperor Henry V., father-in-law of 
the king of England, chastised Louis for harboring 
the sovereign pontiff. Then Louis, seizing the ori- 
flamme in the abbey of St. Denis for the first time, 
summoned around him all the vassals and the com- 
munal militia of the kingdom (1124). The empe- 



Fourth Epoch. 299 

ror, alarmed, withdrew without striking a blow ; but 
his death brought new danger to France, for his 
widow, Matilda, married Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count 
of Anjou. Louis VI., by way of compensation, mar- 
ried his eldest son to Eleanor of Guienne, heiress of 
the duchy of Aquitaine. This wise monarch had 
reason to hope that after his death the royal autho- 
rity would i^reserve the power he had given it by the 
help of the clergy and the judicious counsels of liis 
friend Suger, the abbot of St. Denis. 

Emancipation^ of the Towns ; Municipal Ci- 
ties, Pkiyileged Towns, etc. — It was not Louis 
the Fat, as has been asserted, who founded com- 
munes or districts, several of which existed before 
his time, but he profited by his alliance with the 
clergy to have himself declared head of all the con- 
fraternities and armed leagues which were organized 
in every diocese to arrest and punish the disturbers 
of the peace. The emancipation of the towns in the 
eleventh and twelfth centuries was due not to the 
intervention of royalty but to the love of liberty of 
the inhabitants themselves. By their industry and 
commercial enterprise many of them had acquired 
wealth, which they naturally desired to enjoy free 
from the interference of the neighboring nobility. 
Besides, a few cities, particularly in Italy and in 
Southern France, continued to hold to the tradi- 
tions, more or less modified, of the Roman munici- 
pality ; so that these ancient Roman cities were the 
first to give an example of complete municipal inde- 
pendence, or of a free city nominally subject to the 
suzerainty of a prince or baron. Every municipal 
city was a sort of republic, governing itself by magis- 
trates, who were elected by the citizens, and wliom 



300 History of the Middle Ages. 

they designated as consuls, capitularies, senators, 
syndics, wardens, or aldermen, etc. The most fa- 
mous municipal cities were Pisa, Genoa, Venice, 
Milan, Bergamo, Bologna, and others, which con- 
stituted in the twelfth century the *^ Lombard 
League " in Italy ; Marseilles, Avignon, Aries (1131), 
Beziers, Montpellier (1141), Toulouse (1183), etc., 
in France ; Brussels, Ghent (1180), Bruges, etc., in 
Flanders ; Strassburg (123G), Treves, Mentz (1255), 
Cologne, Frankfort-on-the-Main (1257), etc., in 
Germany. 

In regard to the origin of communes, it must be 
attributed not, as has been said, to the tradition of 
the Germanic tribe assembled about its chief, but 
to the custom of the faithful in every parish band- 
ing together by oath to enforce the Truce of God. 
The thought naturally occurred to them to employ 
the same means to secure their independence. The 
commune was an association of all the inliabitants, 
which met in the church or on the public square, 
pledged to lend mutual aid in defence of the fran- 
chises or liberties of the city as guaranteed in a 
charter. This charter was granted by their lord 
freely, by force, or on the payment of a sum of 
money, and gave the inhabitants the right of paying 
only fixed contributions, of being exempt from all 
personal servitude, and it empowered tliem to ad- 
minister the commune themselves by naming their 
own magistrates, mayors, burgesses or aldermen, 
and jurors. Each commune had a city hall, a par- 
ticular seal, and a belfry, surmounted by a clock, as 
a symbol of independence. On the least sign of 
alarm the signal-man watching in tlie beifry sounded 
the tocsin to call the communal militia to arms. 



Fourth Epoch. 301 

His ordinary duty was to announce the hour of the 
assembly and the curfew. 

Besides communal and municipal cities, there were 
many which, though having no charter or independ- 
ent administration, nevertheless possessed important 
franchises which the king or lords had granted them 
either in consideration of their commerce and manu- 
factures or for the security of their life and pro- 
perty. These were privileged cities or commonali- 
ties. Their condition soon appeared j^referable to 
that of the communes, which were always a prey to 
intestine discord when they were not engaged in a 
struo^orie with the lords. Hence communes from the 
thirteenth century gave up their charters to j^lace 
themselves under the protection of the royal au- 
thority. The most remarkable result of the eman- 
cipation of cities was the importance acquired by the 
middle class, or burghers, who in France composed 
the Third Estate {tiers eiat). 

Louis VIL, the Youkger (1137-1180) ; his 
EiVALRY WITH Hejtry II. — Louis VIL, the Young- 
er, inherited neither the wisdom nor the firmness of 
his father. Having refused to acknowledge a new 
archbishop of Bourges appointed by Pope Innocent 
II., he was drawn into an unfortunate war, notori- 
ous for the burning of Yitry. His remorse for this 
deed led him to undertake the second Crusade, which, 
even though he lost his army in it, turned out less 
fatal to his kingdom than his misunderstanding with 
his capricious and frivolous queen. On his return 
he obtained a divorce from Eleanor of Guienne, who 
soon gave her hand to Henry Plantagenet, a son of 
Geoffrey and Matilda (1152). Two years later Hen- 
ry was proclaimed king of England. He had already 



302 History of the Middle Ages. 

inherited, by liis mother, the duchy of Normandy, 
and by his fatlier Anjou, Maine, and Touraine ; 
and lie received as his wife's dower tlie extensive 
duchy of Aquitaine, stretching from the Loire to 
the Pyrenees. Thus the new king of England was 
master of all Western France, save Brittany, whose 
alliance he secured by obtaining the hand of its 
heiress, Constance, for his son Geoffrey. Against so 
doughty a rival the king of France thought himself 
justified in encouraging the revolt of his children 
and patronizing St. Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of 
Canterbury. Louis VII. has the glory of having 
checked the power of Henry II., and of having wise- 
ly governed his kingdom by the counsels of his min- 
ister, Suger. 

Philip IL (1180-1223) ; his Conquests ; Vic- 
tory OF BouYixES (1214).— Philip II., surnamed 
Augustus, ascended the throne at the age of fifteen. 
Endowed with rare prudence and unyielding firm- 
ness, he baffled the hopes which his enemies had 
founded on his youth. Having married Isabella 
of Hainaut, a descendant of Charlemagne, he en- 
couraged a now revolt of the sons of Henry II., who 
died of grief. During the third Crusade Eichard 
Coeur de Lion, the new king of England, wounded 
the overbearing disposition of his suzerain, the 
king of France. Philip, upon his hasty return to 
France, meanly determined to profit by the absence of 
his rival, and at once set about the conquest of Nor- 
mandy. But Richard, once released, had little difli- 
culty in recovering all that he had lost, and obtained a 
truce of five years through the mediation of Innocent 
III. At his death (1199) John Lackland, not con- 
tent with usurping the crown from his nephew. 



Fourth Epoch, 303 

Arthur of Brittany, imprisoned liim, murdered him 
with his own liiind, and tlirew his corpse into the 
Seine near Rouen. Tliis horrible assassination ex- 
cited universal indignation. The king of France, 
ever ready to profit by the crimes or the misfortunes 
of others, summoned the English monarch, who was 
his vassal as duke of Normandy, to appear before the 
court of peers (1203). John gave no heed to the 
summons, and was declared guilty of felony and 
sentenced to forfeit all his possessions in France. 
Philip, at the head of a large army, fell upon Xor- 
mandy, and added that fair province to the crown, 
three hundred years after its cession to the Normans 
by Charles the Simple. The conqueror, taking ad- 
vantage of the incapacity of John Lackland, subject- 
ed Touraine, Maine, Anjou, and Poitou ; so that 
there remained to the king of England but the third 
of his possessions on the Continent. 

John saw himself about to lose his crown, which 
was offered to the king of France. To avert the 
danger he declared himself a vassal of the Holy See 
and sought a reconciliation with Pope Innocent III. 
For the purpose of recovering the provinces which 
Philip Augustus had taken from him, he formed a 
league against that monarch, in which the Emperor 
Otho IV., Ferrand, Count of Flanders, and a host 
of other lords mindful of the ambition of France, 
took part. Nevertheless the king of England was 
beaten, near Angers, by Prince Louis the Lion, and 
his allies were utterly vanquished by Philip Augus- 
tus at Bou vines, near Lille (1214). This was a de- 
cisive triumph for France ; it blasted the hopes of 
her enemies, and secured her in the possession of the 
provinces taken from the English, as well as Artois 



304 History of the Middle Ages, 

and nearly all Picardy. What equally redounded to 
the glory of Philip was his wisdom in regulating 
the administration of his kingdom : he gave the 
force of law to the decision of the court of peers i 
restored order by means of an efficient police ; and 
created seventy-eight provosts, entrusted with every- 
thing regarding the army, linances, and justice, 
under the supervision of bailiffs, known as seneschals 
in the south of France. Thus the royal authority, 
recovering its prestige, had nothing more to fear 
from the encroachments of the great nobles. 

Louis VIII., the Lioi^ (1223-1226).— The Cape- 
tian dynasty wtis so firmly established that Philip 
Augustus had judged it useless to place his eldest 
son, Louis the Lion, upon the throne beside him in 
imitation of his predecessors. The young prince, at 
the invitation of the disaffected English barons, had 
been in hopes of wearing the crown of England. 
Having become king of France, he refused to restore 
to Henry III., son of John Lackland, the provinces 
confiscated by Pliilip Augustus ; in a few weeks he 
had routed the English from all their possessions, 
except Bordeaux and Gascony (1224). We have seen 
that, after a successful crusade against the Albigen- 
ses, Louis YIII. suddenly died in Auvergne. By 
his marriage with Blanche of Castile he left four 
sons and one daughter : Louis, the eldest, who suc- 
ceeded him ; Eobert, Count of Artois ; Alphonse, 
Count of Poitiers ; Charles, Count of Anjou ; and 
Isabella. 

St. Louts (1226-1270) ; his Wars a:s-d his 
Government. — Louis IX., being but eleven years 
old, was under the guardianship of his mother, 
Blanche of Castile, who was regent. This firm, tal- 



Fourth Epoch. 305 

ented, and virtuous princess knew how to govern, 
and to make her son a great king and a great saint. 
The more powerful lords, having taken arms to reas- 
sert their independence, were forced to return to 
their duty. The treaty of Paris terminated the Al- 
bigensian war (1229), which for twenty years had 
desolated the southern provinces. Louis, having 
taken the reins of government in hand, completed 
what his mother had so well begun ; he marched in 
person against Hugh de Lusignan, Count of La 
Marche, a rebel vassal who had the support of the 
king of England. The king of France, victorious at 
Taillebourg and again under the walls of Saintes, pur- 
sued the flying English to the Garonne (1242). The 
count of La Marche, having cast himself at his feet, 
obtained pardon by ceding a part of his domains. 
The English monarch gladly signed a treaty of peace. 
Several years afterwards St. Louis was generous 
enough, in the treaty of Abbeville, to give Henry 
III. of England all the provinces between the Ga- 
ronne and Charente, but on condition of his paying 
liege homage for them to the king of France. 

When St. Louis, in the first Crusade, became pri- 
soner of the infidels, the account of his misfortunes 
filled France with mourning. Many peasants took 
arms to rescue him, but they committed such excesses 
at Paris and Orleans that Blanche had to employ 
force to disperse them. On the death of this wise 
princess Louis hastened back to his kingdom, which 
he found as tranquil and flourishing as he had 
left it. The holy king continued to labor for the 
welfare of his people by enacting wise laws ; he for- 
bade the private wars which the lords had been in the 
habit of waging with one another on trivial pretexts : 



306 HiSTOK Y OF THE MiDDLE A GES. 

lie iibolislied in his own domains the proof of inno- 
cence by duel ; he took care to increase the facilities 
for a direct appeal to Yoyal justice ; and he reserved 
the right of coining money for himself. To super- 
intend the provosts and bailiffs he sent into the 
provinces "royal incjuisitors," authorized to reform 
abuses. The greatest lords, if guilty, never escaped 
with impunity. The monarch delighted to render 
justice, in person, to the lowliest of his subjects. 
Dispensing with the annoying conventionalities of 
rank, he would pace the wood of Vincennes, or, seat- 
ed at the foot of a wide-spreading oak, would give 
audience to common people, whom no usher or guard 
hindered from laying open their grievances. 

Eenowned throughout Europe for his wisdom and 
virtue, Louis was chosen as arbiter of affairs of the 
utmost importance. The differences between the 
English barons and Henry III. were left to his arbi- 
tration, and his decision conciliated the royal prero- 
gatives with the respect due to the ancient liberties 
of England. But, despite solicitations, he refused 
to intervene between the sovereign pontiff and Fred- 
erick II., as the latter Avas an excommunicated 
prince. He declined the crown of the Two Sicilies 
offered him by Urban IV., but left his brother free 
to conquer Southern Italy (12GG). But the all-ab- 
sorbinc^ idea of Louis's life was to undertake an- 
other Crusade. We have seen that from the time of 
his arrival under the walls of Tunis he constantly 
gave the example of all the loftiest Christian vir- 
tues (1270). He was the most accomplished hero 
of his age, and to him France owes much of the 
glory which was attributed to her during mediajval 
times. 



Fourth Epoch. 307 

Sec. 2. England; the Norman Kings (1066-1154) 
and the First Four Plantagenets (1154-1272) ; 
Ancient Ireland; Invasion of Ireland (1171); 
Magna Charta (1215). 

William the Conqueror (1066-1087) and Wil- 
liam KuFUS (1087-1100).— William, Duke of Nor- 
mandy, had conquered England by the victory of 
Hastings (1066), and secured his power by despoil- 
iiig the yanquished in favor of the Normans. After 
trampling out the last revolt of the Anglo-Saxons,, 
he forced the king of Scotland to acknowledge his 
suzerainty (1073), but he found a bitter rival in 
Philip I. of France. William died at Mantes, and 
left three sons : the eldest, Eobert, had the duchy 
of Normandy ; the second, William, surnamed Rufus 
from his. red hair, inherited the crown of England ; 
the third, Henry, received only a pittance, of which 
when he complained his father said to him : ^' Pa- 
tience, my. son; you will one day inherit the fortunes 
of both your brothers." 

William Rufus had at first to defend his crown 
against his eldest brother. To enlist the Anglo- 
Saxons in his favor he gave them back their right to 
hunt and all their other ancient liberties. Robert, 
attacked in Normandy by superior forces, was com- 
pelled to relinquish his pretensions. As he needed 
money to take part in the first Crusade, he offered 
William the government of Normandy for five years 
for the sum of $92,500 (1095). The king of Eng- 
land, having nothing further to fear, gave full scope 
to his passions. Not content with suppressing the. 
very liberties he had restored, he burdened his sub- 
jects with heavy taxes and multiplied expedients to 



308 History of the Middle Ages. 

glut liis avarice. As if he had repented of having at 
first followed the wholesome counsels of Lanfranc, 
the Archbishop of Canterbury, he raised one of his 
courtiers to the archbishopric of Durham, and made 
him the accomplice of his tyranny. This unworthy 
prelate received the name of Flambard, from his 
being a liery scourge to the people. Neither justice 
nor mercy was to be expected ; William and his 
minister ruled by terror. If any complaint was 
made the monarch assumed a threatening air and a 
thundering tone. The Church, too, groaned under 
grievous oppression ; bishoprics were sold to the 
highest bidders or left vacant, and the revenues 
turned to the profit of the royal treasury. St. An- 
selm, who had succeeded his master, Lanfranc, in 
the see of Canterbury, was exiled for making just 
complaints to the king. William speedily received 
the chastisement of his iniquities. One day while 
hunting he cried out to one of his knights to shoot 
a stag that was passing by ; but the arrow, de- 
flected by a tree, struck the king full in the breast, 
and so delivered England from a tyrant and the 
Church from a persecutor (1100). 

Henry I. (1100-1135) ; Recovery of Norman- 
dy (HOG) AND War with France. — Robert, the 
eldest brother, was still engaged in the ci-usade when 
William II. died. Henry, the youngest, surnamed 
Beauclerc on account of his learning, had himself 
crowned king of England. The very day of his 
coronation in Westminster he published a charter, 
which restored the ancient liberties of the country 
and guaranteed ecclesiastical immunities. St. An- 
selm, recalled from exile, blessed the marriage of the 
new monarch with St. Matilda, who was a daughter 



Fourth Epoch. 309 

of Malcolm, King of Scotland, and of St. Margaret, 
a descendant of the Anglo-Saxon kings. This judi- 
cious policy won for Henry the affection of his sub- 
jects and enabled him to set aside the claims of his 
brother Eobert, who had just returned to Norman- 
dy. Kobert, vanquished and taken prisoner at 
Tinchebrai (1106), was shut up in Cardiff Cas- 
tle, in AVales, where he languished twenty-eight 
years in the most rigorous captivity. His son, Wil- 
liam Cliton, in vain sought the jDrotection of the 
king of France ; the English monarch, victorious at 
Brenneville, secured the possession of Normandy. 
But his triumph was followed by domestic afflictions 
which clouded the last years of his reign. On his 
return he sailed from Barfleur, in Normandy. His 
only son, with other members of the royal family, 
and one hundred and fifty knights belonging to the 
flower of the nobility, were to follow him in a vessel 
called the Wiite Sliijj. But the crew had just been 
carousing in honor of the young prince, and were 
unable to manage the craft, which struck upon a 
rock and went down with all on board. The tidings 
of this shipwreck threw Henry into a melancholy, so 
that he was never known to smile again. His 
daughter Matilda now became the sole object of his 
affection. After the death of her first husband, the 
Emperor Henry V., she married Geoffrey, Count of 
Anjou, surnamed Plantagenet, because a sprig of 
broom {plant e de genet) was the device of his family. 
The king of England, in order to secure the crown to 
Matilda, caused the principal barons and members 
of the royal family to swear fealty to her, but most 
of them did so only to escape the danger of a refu- 
sal. Henry, disappointing the fair hopes which all 



310 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

entertained at the opening of his reign, had become 
as merciless and odious a tyrant as his two prede- 
cessors. 

Stephen^ of Blois (1135-1154) and Matilda ; 
Civil War. — At the death of Henry, his nephew, 
Stephen of Blois, avIio had sworn to support Matil- 
da's rights, was the lirst to ignore them. Being the 
grandson of William the Conqueror by his mother, 
Adela, he claimed and seized the crown. All the 
barons unscrupulously took a new oath of fealty. 
Stephen at first made them friendly by lavishing fa- 
vors and money from the royal treasury. When 
he had nothing more to give, the most powerful 
refused obedience and treated him as an usurper. 
David, King of Scotland, proclaiming himself the 
defender of his cousin Matilda, invaded the northern 
shires, which he gave up to pillage (1137). The en- 
raged inhabitants marched against him under the 
leadershij^ of the archbishop of York, and gained 
the victory of the ^^ Standard," so-called because 
they had erected on a four-wheeled chariot a high 
staff on which were suspended banners of the saints 
most venerated by the English. But this triumph 
did not save Stephen's cause. Matilda, landing in 
England, found partisans sufficiently numerous to 
dispute his claim to the crown ; so that, in spite of 
his courage, .he was beaten and taken prisoner at 
Lincoln (1141). But the daughter of Henry I., 
yielding to her haughty and vindictive disposition, 
irritated the citizens of London, who drove her from 
the capital. Stephen recovered his liberty, and Eng- 
land was thenceforth a prey to all the horrors of civil 
war. " The Normans," says an Anglo-Saxon chroni- 
cler, '* entrenched in their castles as in robbers' 



Fourth Epoch, 311 

dens, sallied forth, pillaging and slaughtering with- 
out distinction of age or sex. Nothing was seen but 
cities, villages, churches, and monasteries in flames ; 
commerce ceased, and tillage was interrupted in 
many places. ' Christ and his saints forget us,' said 
the poor people, ' when so much crime is unpunish- 
ed.'" At last Stephen, having lost his eldest son, 
terminated the civil war by acknowledging Matilda's 
son Henry as his heir (1153). Naturally good, brave, 
and generous, he had erred in sacrificing everything 
to his ambition, which proved disastrous to himself 
and to England. 

Hekry II. (1154-1189) ; Exile of St. Thomas 
1 Becket (1164). — On the death of Stephen, Henry^ 
Count of Anjou, the first of the dynasty of Plan- 
tagenets, was proclaimed king of England. It 
has been seen that his marriage with Eleanor of 
Guienne had rendered him master of nearly all Wes- 
tern France. More powerful than Louis VII. , whose 
yassal he was for his Continental possessions, he 
wanted to make a display in Paris of his riches 
and magnificence. Ilis ambassador made a solemn 
entrance into that city, having a retinue of clerics 
and knights richly attired, followed by eight cha- 
riots laden with the most costly articles of gold 
and silver. Thomas a Becket, the English ambas- 
sador, was the son of a noble Saxon of London, 
and had earned the friendship of Henry IL, who 
made him preceptor of his eldest son, archdeacon 
of Canterbury, and chancellor of the realm. To 
erown so many favors the king wished to elevate 
his minister to the primacy of England. In vain 
Becket pleaded his unworthiness and his inability to 
enter into Henry's views in regard to ecclesiastical 



312 History of the Middle Ages. 

affairs. ^* If I become archbishop/'' said lie, ^^we 
shall soon cease to be friends." Nevertheless he was 
named archbishop of Canterbury. Scarcely was he 
consecrated bishop than he banished luxury from his 
household and would have no other liveries but those 
of apostolic poverty ; beggars and the unfortunate 
were his favorite guests. Henry II., already dis- 
pleased with his resignation of the chancellorship, 
was still more irritated by his energy in defending 
the rights of the Church. This monarch attempted 
to restrict the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical tribunals, 
and to bring all suits, whether of churchmen or lay- 
men, into the royal courts. In the convention of 
Clarendon he himself asked the bishops, if they 
would not agree to observe the '* ancient customs of 
the realm." To this insidious question Thomas a 
Becket replied that they would observe the customs, 
*^ saving the honor of God and the holy Church.'* 
Henry, then assuming a menacing tone, caused the 
doors of an adjoining apartment to be thrown open, 
where soldiers under arms were disclosed to view, 
awaiting but a sign from their master. Becket, at 
first calm and resolute, at last yielded to the en- 
treaties of those around him ; he promised to ob- 
serve all the customs, and asked in what they con- 
sisted. The next morning the sixteen ^'Constitu- 
tions of Clarendon " were laid before the council ; 
they gave the monarch the right of arraigning clerics 
before secular tribunals, of administering vacant 
dioceses and of using their revenues, of naming 
bishops and of forbidding them to travel beyond th§ 
realm, and of accepting or rejecting at will every 
sentence of excommunication. These alleged customs 
were, in fact, but innovations devised by £[enry IL 



Fourth Epoch, 31-3 

to destroy the ancient immunities of the Church. 
Hence the archbishop of Canterbury declined to fol- 
low the example of the other prelates, but, instead of 
retracting his promise to sign, he asked a delay. On 
his return to Canterbury he bewailed his own weak- 
ness, informed Pope Alexander III. of all that had 
occurred, begged absolution, and interdicted himself 
meanwhile from every exercise of episcopal func- 
tions. Henry II., beside himself with rage, swore 
vengeance. " Either I shall be king no longei," he 
exclaimed, ^' or this man ceases to be archbishop." 
Summoned to Northampton, Becket set out, crucifix 
in hand, after celebrating the Mass of !St. Stephen 
the Protomartyr. Neither menaces nor outrages 
could ^hake his resolution. Sentenced to prison as a 
traitor and perjurer, he appealed to the sovereign 
pontiff, and succeeded in secretly embarking for 
France, where he arrived under circumstances very- 
different from those of his former visit as ambassa- 
dor of King Henry II. 

Martyrdom of St. Thomas a Becket (1170). — 
The exile of the holy archbishop exasperated his 
cruel persecutor. Henry, after confiscating the 
possessions o± the primate, banished all such as were 
attached to him by kindred or friendship. The 
proscribed, to the number of four hundred, were re- 
quired to swear that as soon as they landed in 
France they would present themselves before 
Thomas a Becket. The sight of his unfortunate 
friends wrung the heart of the exiled prelate, but 
did not daunt his courage. King Louis VIL, in 
defiance of the threats of Henry, offered a generous 
hospitality to these victims. And at this very time 
he was entertaining Pope Alexander III., who had 



SI 4 History OF THE Middle Ages, 

been driven from Rome by the violence of Frederick 
Barbarossa. The sovereign pontiff sanctioned the 
resistance of Thomas a Becket and condemned the 
Constitutions of Clarendon. Henry 11. , who feared 
that his realms might be laid under interdict, con- 
sented to accept the mediation of the king of France. 
In a formal interview he feigned reconciliation with 
the archbishop, who returned to his diocese amidst 
the acclamations of all the people, who hastened to 
meet him. '' I return," said he to them, " to die in 
your midst." 

The primate, at the suggestion of the sovereign 
pontiff, excommunicated several bishops who had 
openly violated the ecclesiastical laws. Henry II. 
took up their defence and set no bounds to his fury. 
One day at table, in a paroxysm of rage, he exclaim- 
ed : " Of all the cowards in my service, is there not 
one that will rid me of this turbulent j^i'iest ? " 
Four knights immediately set out ; they found the 
prelate in the choir of his cathedral, where vespers 
were just beginning. ^' Where is the traitor ?" they 
cried ; no one answering, they asked : ^'^ Where is the 
archbishop ? " '^ Here is the archbishop," he replied, 
^' but no traitor. What do you seek in the house of 
God?" "Your life," they cried with one voice. 
"And gladly do I give it," was his answer. "I 
commen4 my soul to God and Our Lady ; only in 
his name I charge you that you lay not your hands 
upon any of my followers." Then one of the 
wretches struck him on the head. He wiped away 
the blood as it streamed down his face, and said : 
'' Lord, into thy hand I commend my spirit." They 
redoubled their blows and left him stretohed dead 
at the foot of the altar (December 29, 1170). 



Fourth Epoch, 315 

IllELA2!fD BEFORE AND AFTER THE AkGLO-NoRMAK 

Ikvasiok (1171).— Ireland was known to the an- 
cients by dilferent names — lerne, luverna, Hibernia ; 
by the natives it was called Eire (Erin). According 
to tradition it was peopled successively by the Neim- 
hidians, Fomorians,- Fir-bolgs, Tuatha De Dananns, 
and the Milesians, said to have been of Scythian 
origin. The Fir-bolgs were evidently allied to some 
of the British Celts. The ancient chronicles narrate 
the wonderful journeyings of the Milesians, or Scots, 
whose leader, Milidh, was married to Scota, a daugh- 
ter of the king of Egypt. Setting out from the Red 
Sea, they dwelt for a time in Spain. From them 
Erin was often called Scotia, or Scotia Major, while 
its colony of Ar-gael (Argyle), at the north of Britain, 
was known as Scotia Minor, Scotland. 

The best known of the many early heroes whose 
adventures are still related in the Gaelic tongue in 
Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland was Fion 
Mac Cumhaill (MacOoole), who disciplined an order 
of knighthood called the Fenians. He was a lover 
of music, too, and wrote odes which are still recited. 
He was the father of Oisin (pronounced osh'in), the 
most celebrated of the Celtic poets. Nial " of the 
Nine Hostages" (about 380) invaded Britain and 
Gaul. His successor, Dathi, was killed by light- 
ning in one of the passes of the Alps, and his 
body was brought back to Erin for burial. 

The people were divided into septs, or clans (daima, 
children), and each clan held its territory in common. 
At the death of a clansman his land reverted to the 
clan, while his personal effects were divided between 
his sons. Over each clan was a chief, or clanfin7ie. 
A successor, or tanist, was chosen before the chief's 



316 HllSTORY OF THE MiDDLE AgES, 

death, usually, but not always, from the chief's 
family. War was the almost coustant occupation of 
these chiefs, who kept minstrels or bards to sing their 
exploits and the heroic deeds of their ancestors. 
There was but little commerce, and cattle was the 
medium of exchange. 

The religion was similar to that of the Gauls and 
the Britons, and was ministered by a body of men 
known as druids (duir, oak), who paid particular 
reverence to the oak and the black-thorn, and wore 
wreaths of oak-leaves when performing their rites. 
The god Bel Avas w^orshipped witli solemnity, espe- 
cially on May-day {Beltmne, or Beltain), Avhen great 
fires were lit in his honor. 

The island was divided into five kingdoms, Ulster, 
Leinster, Munster, Connaught, and Meath. Each 
was ruled by a king, or righ (pronounced ree), and 
one of them, who resided in Meath and was called 
the high-king, or ard-rigli, enjoyed a nominal supre- 
macy. The laws were administered by the hrelions, 
or judges, and these, as well as the bards and the 
druids, formed a privileged order. 

Early in the fifth century Christianity had been 
introduced, but seems to have had little success be- 
fore the arrival of St. Patrick (432). The gi'eat 
saint, before his death (March 17, 465), made all 
Ireland Christian. Churches and monasteries arose 
upon all sides, and learning was cultivated as well as 
religion. St. Brigid, who died at an advanced age 
(February 1, 525), was abbess of Kildare. St. Col- 
umbkille established a great abbey and school at lona, 
and was the apostle of Scotland. As stated else- 
where, Irish saints and scholars founded religious 
houses and great seats of learning on the Continent* 



Fourth Epoch, 317 

Eric of Auxerre wrote to Charles tlie Bald : *' What 
shall I say of Ireland, which, scorning the perils of 
the deep, migrates to our shores with her whole train 
of philosophers ?" St. Brendan is said to have made 
a seven years' voyage to the West, and from his de- 
scriptions seems to have landed in North America 
and to have seen the Ohio River. Rhyme in verse 
was probably an invention of the Irish at this 
time, as stated by Zeuss, the learned German wri- 
ter on the Celtic languages. 

Erin fell a prey to the Danes (about 748), known 
as Ostmen, or Eastern men, who for over two centu- 
ries carried their ravages to almost all parts of the 
island. They made settlements at the mouths of 
the principal rivers, and Dublin, AVaterford, Limer- 
ick, became their strongholds. But a deliverer ap- 
peared in Malachi, the ard-righ, who, rallying the 
dispirited Irish, put the Danes to rout at Tara. 
Brian Born (the Brave), righ of Munster, made an 
alliance with the Danes, and by their help defeated 
Malachi and took a part of his territory (1002). 
Brian became ard-righ, but did not win peace with his 
glory. His late allies were determined to be masters 
of the country. The Ostmen summoned their kins- 
men from Scandinavia and the • adjacent islands for 
an united effort against Erin. The contending 
forces met at Clontarf (Good Friday, 1014), where a 
bloody contest took place. The Danes were utterly 
routed and their power broken by the warlike Brian, 
who was now eighty- three years old. But after the 
battle the white-haired hero was slain in his tent by 
a Dane who was retreating from the battle-field. 

Peace now established, the arts of civilization be- 
gan to revive. But green Erin was as attractive to 



318 ITr STORY OF the Middle Ages. 

tlie Christian Anglo-Xormans as it had been to 
their pagan kinsmen, the Danes. On the representa- 
tions of the learned Jolm of Salisbury, Pope Adrian 
IV. is said to have issued a bull permitting Henry 
II. to make conquest of Ireland in the interests of 
religion and the Holy See, just as another bull had 
authorized William's descent upon England. ^ The 
authenticity of Adrian's bull has been questioned, 
and its genuineness is doubted by able scholars. 
For some time Ireland was unmolested, as Henry 
was busy with his own affairs. However, the dis- 
sensions of the Irish themselves soon furnished an 
opportunity of establishing the Xorman dominion. 
Diarmid MacMurroch, King of Leinster, carried off 
Dervorgil, the wife of O'Euarc, chief of Brefny. Tliis 
was the beginning of a bitter war that ended in Mac- 
Murroch's flight. The fugitive presented himself to 
King Henry and did homage for his kingdom of 
Leinster. A band of Anglo-Xorman knights, headed 
by Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke, better known 
as Strongbow, and including Robert Fitzstephen 
and Maurice Fitzgerald, landed in Ireland to main- 
tain MacMurroch's cause. Wexford, Waterford, and 
Dublin fell into their hands. The Danes of Dublin, 
under Asculf, revolted, but were easily quelled. The 
Irish, under their ard-righ, Ruari O'Conor, laid siege 
to Dublin, but were repulsed with great slaughter, 
and O'Ruarc, who repeated the attempt, was equally 
unsuccessful. The Irish, looking upon it as cowardly 
to wear defensive armor, were usually at the mercy 
of the mail-clad Xormans. In the meantime Mac- 
Murroch had died, so that Strongbow, having been 
made tanist, and marrying that chief's daughter 
Eva, became righ, or king, of Leinster. But Henry 



Fourth Epoch. 319 

was growing jealous of Strongbow's success and 
commanded all his subjects to return at once to Eng- 
land. Strongbow hastened to court, surrendered all 
of his conquests, and received them back as tenant- 
jn-chief. 

Henry was so pleased with his new acquisition that 
he assembled a considerable army and landed at Wa- 
terford (October 18, 1171). After five months in 
Ireland other matters compelled him to leave the 
country in charge of De Lacy, whom he appointed 
governor-general. The Anglo-Kormans met heroic 
resistance. De Courcy overran Ulster, but in the 
south and west the Irish were generally successful. 
MacCarthy of Desmond broke the strong defences of 
Cork ; 'Brian of Thomond repulsed De Burgo, 
the lord-deputy at Thurles, and affairs began to look 
unpromising for the invaders, when the Irish, in the 
midst of their successes, turned their arms against 
one another. MacCarthy called upon the lN"ormans 
for aid against O'Brian, and his example was follow- 
ed by other Irish chiefs. A period of uninterrupted 
war set in, and the inhabitants were plunged in such 
misery that in Edward II .'s time they petitioned for 
the enjoyment of English laws. But this was op- 
posed by the ten or twelve great K"orman families 
and their retainers, who had parcelled out a good 
portion of the country amongst themselves, and had 
erected strong castles to keep the ^^ Irish enemies " 
in subjection. The ]S"ormans pursued the same un- 
relenting policy of extermination and confiscation 
that had ma.de them masters of England. 

The victory of the Scots over the English at Ban- 
nockburn renewed the hopes of the Irish Celts, and 
Edward Bruce, the brother of the Scottish king. 



320 History of the Middle Ages. 

landed at Carrickfergus with six thousand men 
(May 16, 1315). Donal O'Nial, out of love for his 
country, resigning his riglits as bead of tlie royal 
clan, Edward Bruce was crowned king of Ireland. 
In the meantime the united Gaels had met and 
routed De Burgo, Earl of Ulster, and Butler, the 
lord- justiciary, llobert Bruce, King of Scotland, 
now arrived, so that the Gaels mustered twenty 
thousand fighting men. But the Normans of 
**the Pale," as the territory held by the English 
was called, reconciled their differences, and Felim 
O'Conor, righ of Connaught, was disastrously de- 
feated at Athenry (August 10, 1316), while Butler 
sent the heads of eight hundred O'Mores to Dublin 
as evidence of his victory over that clan. Robert 
Bruce returned to Scotland, and after the death 
of his brother Edward the struggle was continued 
with varying results. 

The descendants of the Anglo-Norman invaders, 
while maintaining themselves as a distinct race, gra- 
dually adopted the language, customs, dress, and 
even the clan-system of the Gaelic Irish, and soon 
began to forget their allegiance to England. To 
remedy this the famous Statute of Kilkenny was 
enacted (1367). It forbade the people of English race 
to intermarry with the Irish, to have recourse to the 
Brehon law, to speak the Gaelic language, to wear 
the Irish dress, or even the beard which was then 
held as the distinctive mark of an Irishman, to 
recognize the customs and rights of fostering and 
gossipred, or to adopt the Irish form of surnames. 
And this statute indicates the spirit of much of 
the English legislation for Ireland from that day 
to this. 



FoTTRTH Epoch, 3:^1 

Struggle of Hei^ry II. with his Soi^s and with 
THE KiKG OE Frakce. — Ilcnrj IL, who had been 
obliged to war against his own children during the 
exile of St. Thomas il Becket, feared that the mur- 
der of the primate would alford them a pretext to re- 
sume arms with the support of the king of France. 
For the purpose of warding off this danger and ap- 
peasing the public indignation, he accepted all the 
conditions imposed by the legates of Pope Alexander 
III. Having attested on oath that he had no part in 
the death of the archbishop, he abolished the Consti- 
tutions of Clarendon, and even declared himself a vas- 
sal of the Holy See. This tardy reparation failed to 
dissolve the powerful league organized against him. 
While his children, upheld by Louis YII., raised the 
standard of revolt in his Continental possessions, the 
Scots invaded his realm of England. The monarch at 
last thought to move Heaven in his favor by a peniten- 
tial pilgrimage to Canterbury. Clad in a penitent's 
habit, he made the journey barefoot to the cathedral, 
where he prostrated himself before the tomb of Thomas 
a Becket, recently enrolled among the martyrs, and 
in this position remained for a long while ; then, ac- 
cusing himself publicly of the words he had uttered 
at table in a transport of anger, he begged to be 
scourged by the bystanders (1174). Tliis exemplary 
penance was immediately followed by such prosper- 
ous events that contemporaries regarded them as the 
effect of divine mercy. The king of Scotland, defeat- 
ed and taken prisoner, recovered his liberty only 
on condit^'on of acknowledging the suzerainty of the 
crown of England. Henry H. landed on the Con- 
tinent, and forced the king of France to raise the 
siege of Rouen, and his rebel children to sue for for- 



322 History of the Middle Ages. 

givencss (1174). Still, the young princes, incited by 
their mother, Eleanor of Guienne, soon resumed 
their arms.. The eldest, Henry, suddenly stricken 
with a mortal illness, died on ashes, bitterly regret* 
ting that he could not receive the paternal blessing. 
The third, Geoffrey, Count of Brittany, was tram- 
pled to death by horses in a tournament given in his 
honor at the French court. These terrible exam- 
ples were ineffectual ; Henry II. had the grief of 
seeing his second son, Richard Coeur de Lion, once 
more unfurl the standard of revolt. The issue was 
most hnmiliating to tlie aged monarch, who had no 
alternative but to submit to the conditions dictated 
by Philip Augustus. AVhen he saw at the head of 
the list containing the names of the rebels that of 
John Lackland, his youngest son, Avhom he had al- 
ways tenderly loved, he was pierced with acute an- 
guish which soon brought him to the gates of death. 
*' Cursed be the day of my birth,'* cried he, ^^and 
the sons I leave behind me !" Thus died at Chinon 
the sovereign at one time held to be the most pow- 
erful of Europe, and who afterwards seemed the most 
deserving of pity ; for, after shedding the blood of 
the innocent, he became unfortunate as father, hus- 
band, and king. 

EiCHAKD CcEUii DE Liox (1189-1199) ; Eivalry 
WITH Philip Augustus. — Richard Coeur de Lion 
inherited all his fathers dominions ; his brother 
John was surnamcd Lackland because he had no 
appanage but the government of Ireland, of which 
he was the first viceroy, but had little or no control. 
Richard, to meet the costs of the Crusade, levied new 
taxes on his subjects and sold his right of suzerainty 
over Scotland. "We have seen that his brilliant ex- 



Fourth Epoch, 323 

ploits ill the East were followed by rigorous capti- 
vity in the Tyrol. Philip Augustus, whom he had 
offended during the third Crusade, took advantage 
of his absence to attack Normandy. Ambition had 
prompted John Lackland to make common cause 
with the king of France ; but he had no sooner 
been apj^rised of the return of his brother than he 
ordered the massacre of three hundred French 
knights during a banquet. At such a price did this 
cruel and perfidious prince exj)ect pardon. Eichard, 
having granted it, made war against Philip until 
peace was declared through the mediation of Inno- 
cent III. (1199). The hero of the Crusade perished 
ignobly that year in a quarrel about money. One 
of his barons, of Limousin, having discovered a 
treasure, was unwilling to surrender more than a 
half. Eichard claimed the whole and laid siege to 
the castle of Chains. As he rode to survey it an 
arrow pierced his shoulder. The wound proved 
mortal. Before dying he received the sacraments 
with piety and contrition, and directed that his 
heart should be deposited in the loj^al city of Eouen, 
and his body laid at the feet of his father. 

JoHX Lacklakd (1199-1216) ; Eiyalry with 
Philip Augustus axd Disputes with the Holy 
See. — John Lackland, asserting that his brother had 
bequeathed all his inheritance to him, hastened to 
secure its possession. But his nephew, Arthur of 
Brittany, whose riglits were incontestable, resolved 
to enforce them by ;;:-ms with the support of the 
king of France. Tlio young prince was attacked 
unawares and made prisoner in Poitou. John Lack- 
land carried his barbarity so far as to murder him 
with his own hand. The crafty Philip Augustus 



324 lilHTORY OB' THE MiDDLE AGES. 

cited John before the court of peers. John refused 
to appear, and passively allowed the French troops 
to occupy Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and 
Poitou, upon which the French king had long set 
his greedy eyes. 

As if he were not already hated and scorned 
enough by his subjects, John completed his dis- 
honor by a religions persecution. As he had des- 
tined the primatial see of Canterbury for a favorite, 
he refused to admit Stephen Langton, an English- 
man, whose canonical election had been sanctioned 
by Pope Innocent III. (1207). Being resolved, he 
said, to oppose him till death, he already threatened 
to break with the Holy See. The clergy of Canter- 
bury were stripped of their possessions and sent into 
exile. The intrepid Innocent III., failing to effect 
anything by mildness, laid the realms of the royal 
persecutor under an interdict ; by it all the offices of 
religion, the administration of the sacraments, were 
suspended, except that infants were baptized and 
the Viaticum was given to the dying (1208). John 
Lackland, far from sharing the consternation of his 
subjects, gave way to senseless fury ; he caused many 
priests to be sent to death or to prison, and threat- 
ened to cast the others into i\\Q sea. Overtaken by 
a sentence of excommunication (1200), he went so far 
as to seek alliance with the Albigenses, and even 
with the king of Morocco, promising the latter to 
become a Mussulman. Tliis proceeding put him 
under the ban of Christendom. Innocent III., not- 
withstanding his reluctance, finally put forth his 
whole authority. Conformably to the received right 
of tlie Middle Ages, at that time acknoAvledged by all 
sovereigns, he declared John deposed and Ms sub- 



Fourth Epoch. 325 

jects released from their oath of fealty (1212). Phi- 
Jip Augustus, King of France, joyfully undertook 
the execution of the sentence, which was committed 
to him and was much to his own advantage. He 
collected a considerable fleet and army on the coasts 
of the British Channel. John at last yielded to the 
dread of this new danger. After accepting Stephen 
Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury he solemnly 
swore to repair the evil he had done ; he even 
declared himself a vassal of the Holy See (1213). 
Scarcely was he reconciled with the Church than he 
formed a league to avenge himself on Philip Augus- 
tus ; but the defeat of his allies at Bouvines, and 
afterwards of himself near Angers, blasted all his 
hopes (1214). 

Mag:n"a Chaeta (1215). — John Lackland, despis- 
ed by his subjects for his cowardice in the wars with 
Prance, and still more hated for his tyranny and ra- 
pacity, returned to his kingdom only to undergo 
fresh humiliation. The greater part of the prelates 
and barons had leagued together for the purpose of 
restoring the ancient liberties of the country. The 
king, on their demand, promised to enforce the 
charter which Henry I. had published at his acces- 
sion. This promise was soon retracted. The barons, 
who had already taken their measures, assembled to 
enter London by force of arms. As they asserted 
their liberties in the name of religion, they styled 
themselves the ^^Army of God and of his Holy 
Church." John, driven from his capital, came to 
terms, and signed the Great Charter, or Magna 
Charta, in a meadow on the Thames, between Wind- 
sor and London, called Runnymede (June 15, 1215). 
This charter is looked upon as the basis of the Eng- 



326 lIlSTOli Y OF THE MIDDLE A GES. 

lisli Constitution. Tiie following is n brief sum- 
mary of its most important articles: The Church was 
to be free and to enjoy her liberty of election. The 
king was to relinquish the greater part of his feudal 
rights and to levy no tax without the consent of the 
great national council. No freeman was to be arrest- 
ed, outlawed, or "destroyed," save by the judgment 
of his peers. Cities and boroughs were to preserve 
their privileges, etc. 

John's power was greatly limited by Magna Charta, 
and by deceitful means ho got Innocent III.'s con- 
sent to retract his signature. As he could find no 
adherents among his subjects, he enlisted bands of 
foreign mercenaries, who ravaged the length and 
breadth of the land. The barons offered the crown 
to Louis, the Dauphin of France, who accordingly 
entered London in triumj)!]. John, resolving to 
wage a furious war against him, was crossing an arm 
of the sea known as the Wash when all his baggage 
and treasures, including his crown, were swallowed 
up by the tide. This irrei:>arable loss caused him 
such vexation that he died three days later, after a 
disastrous reign of seventeen years. 

Hexry ITL (1216-1272); his Unpopulakity 
AND THE Statutes of Oxfokd (1258). — The eldest 
son of John, only ten years of age, was proclaimed 
king of England under the name of Henry IIL 
Louis the Lion, abandoned by the English barons, 
who looked upon him as a stranger, soon learned 
that his army had been defeated at Lincoln and his 
fleet destroyed within view of Dover. In place of 
longer disputing the crown he was glad to receive a 
round sum to pay his debts and to be able to get 
back to France in sa^fety The earl of Pembroke, 



FoviiTH Epoch, 337 

marshal of England, liad been named regent of tlie 
realm and guardian of the young Henry III. ; he 
ruled with wisdom, and was succeeded by Hubert de 
Burgo, the gallant defender of Dover Castle. Hu- 
bert, hearing that the French fleet had put to sea on 
its return to France, in spite of the unwillingness of 
his lieutenants gave cliase with only forty small ves- 
sels, about one-third the number of the French 
ships. It was the first naval engagement between 
France and England on the open sea, and resulted 
in a decisive victory for the invincible De Burgo. 
Only fifteen out of more than a hundred French 
ships escaped. Henry III. finally assumed the reins 
of government (1234) ; but he let himself be influ- 
enced by the Frenchmen who had accompanied his 
queen, Eleanor of Provence, to England. The im- 
i:>osition of arbitrary taxes, the shameful defeats of 
Taillebourg and Saintes (1242), and the frequent vio- 
lation of the most important articles of Magna 
Charta completed the discredit of the English king. 
A failure of the crops, followed by a famine which 
he failed to provide for, excited general discontent. 
Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, a son of the 
conqueror of the Albigenses and married to Henry's 
sister, was the greatest man of his day in England. 
Taking advantage of the dissatisfied feeling of the 
country, he urged the barons to combine for the lib- 
erties of the country, and Henry was forced to con- 
voke a national council at Oxford. There the kins: 
swore to observe Magna Charta, and to allow the 
formation of a committee of twenty- four members, 
twelve of whom were named by the barons. This 
committee drew up what is called the Statutes of 
Oxford. The royal authority v/as almost merged in 



328 History of the Middle Ages, 

tlio niitional council, or Parlianicnt, which was to 
assemble at least once every three years. The com- 
mittee of twenty-four, acting in the name of parlia- 
ment, was to make all the nnportant nominations, to 
})rovicle for the defence of strongholds, and its orders 
were to be binding throughout the kingdom under 
penalty of death. These extraordinary demands 
won for the council of Oxford the name of the Mad 
Parliament. Henry III., having recovered a por- 
tion of his authority, chose the king of France as 
umpire. St. Louis, after mature deliberation, de- 
cided that the prerogatives of the English crown 
should be restored as they were before the parlia- 
ment of Oxford ; that Henry should grant a general 
amnesty and the full enjoyment of the liberties 
guaranteed by the Magna Charta of King John. 

SiMOiq- DE MONTFORT AND PrINCE EdWARD ; 

Battle OF Lewes (12G4) and of Evesham (1265). — 
The decision of St. Louis, wise and conciliatory as 
it was, did not satisfy the boundless ambition of the 
earl of Leicester. Resolved to maintain the Statutes 
of Oxford, which were his work, he stirred up an- 
other revolt of the barons. Henry III., at the head 
of the royal army, attacked the barons at Lewes. 
His eldest son. Prince Edward, who commanded the 
vanguard, put the London troops to flight, but rashly 
pursued them too far. Henry III., his brother 
Richard of Cornwall, the titular emperor of Ger- 
many, and Prince Edward himself fell into the 
hands of the enemy. Simon de Montfort at once 
became the ruler of England. Coercing the weak 
Henry, he governed in his name with absolute au- 
thority. In 1265 he summoned to Parliament two 
knights from each shire, or county, and two bur- 



Fourth Epoch, 329 

gesses from every city and borough of tlie country. 
This was the origin of the ** lower house," or House 
of Commons. 

But Simon soon aroused the envy and the misgiv- 
ings of the people and of most of the barons by his 
haughtiness, if not by his tyranny. Prince Edward, 
escaped from prison, soon gathered a fresh army. 
Simon de Montfort met him near Evesham. He 
put his aged prisoner. King Henry, in the front 
rank. Henry, covered with armor that prevented 
his being known, was wounded in the shoulder and 
fell from his horse ; he was about to be despatched 
when he cried out : ''Hold, fellow I 1 am Harry of 
Winchester." Edward recognized his father's voice, 
and, springing to his side, rescued liim and bore him 
to a place of safety. Thanks to his ability and cour- 
age, he gained a decisive victory. Simon de Mont- 
fort, two of his sons, and all but ten of the rebel 
barons lost their lives. Henry III. was restored to 
the full exercise of his authority. Edward, having 
secured peace to England, took part in the Crusade 
of St. Louis under the walls of Tunis. His brilhant 
exploits had made him renowned in the East, but 
he returned to Europe to receive his father's last 
sigh. He was too late, however ; on arriving at Mes- 
sina he heard of Henry's death. These tidings made 
him almost indifferent to the loss of his child while 
on his journey. As Charles of Anjou expressed sur- 
prise at this, ''God," replied Edward, ''may give 
us other children j a good father he gives us but 



330 History of the Middle Ages. 

CHAPTER V. 
THE SCANDINAVIANS, SLAVS, AND MONGOLS. 

The Scandinavians, on the confines of the Christian world, are 
gradually civilized through their intercourse with Home ; 
but the Slavs, seeming to prefer barbarism, retrograde in 
civilization and deserve the chastisements which the Mon- 
gols inflict upon them. In chastising the Eastern races the 
Mongols open Asia to commerce, science, and Christianity. 

Sec. 1. Scandinavian Kingdoms. 

A Glance at Scai^dinavia. — The three Scandi- 
luivian kingdoms, that liad embraced Christianity in 
the preceding epoch, continued to advance in civili- 
y.ation, to form political communities, and to show in 
a brilliant manner that they had become part of the 
great Christian family. In the twelfth century the 
most northern kingdom comprised not only the 
rugged, barren coast now called Norway but also 
the country east of the mountains. Its vessels se- 
cured it the kingdom of the isles (the Orkneys, the 
Hebrides, and the Isle of Man), with the colonies of 
Iceland as well as Greenland, and Yinland in North 
America. Denmark was not limited to its fertile 
archipelago ; it held also all the south of the Scandi- 
navian peninsula, then called Scania, and here was 
Lund, its ecclesiastical metropolis ; moreover, on the 
continent it possessed the peninsula of Jutland and 
the rich provinces of Slesvig and Holstein, which 
brought it into immediate contact with the great 
liomano-Germanic empire and with the Slavic 
tribes over whom it was to extend its conquests. 
Sweden at that time was limited to the lake region 
of Scaiulinavia, where is now the citv of Stockholm, 



Fourth Epoch. 331 

IS^ORWAY ; Internal Commotions, Expeditions. 
— Of all the Scandinavians, the Norwegians were 
the last to hear the preaching of the faith in their 
land ; they Avere the first to embrace it fully, the 
first to arm themselves in its defence and to sing 
the exploits of the intrepid champions of Christ. 
** Forward ! men of Christ, soldiers of the cross and 
of the king ! " Such was the battle-cry of St. Olaf, 
the king ; such was his successors' battle-cry or 
song of victory ; this was the toj^ic of many a saga, 
or heroic poem, sung by the skalds. In distant 
Iceland, thoroughly imbued with Christianity, the 
eddas, or poetical traditions of the ancient Scandi- 
navians, and most of the sagas, w^ere compiled in the 
native Norse tongue. These sagas, which were often 
very life-like in their descriptions, recited lofty 
deeds calculated to rouse the courage of the Norwe- 
gians by immortalizing their forefathers. Christian 
law laid hold of the hearts of these vigorous North- 
men, and, first turning them into Christian war- 
riors, afterwards tamed and softened them. 

Most of the Norwegian kings were possessed of a 
passion for war. For two or three peaceful princes 
there were seven or eight that were warlike and 
eager to brave any danger, as Magnus III. (1093- 
1103), who, having effected the conquest of the 
kingdom of the isles, undertook the reduction of 
Ireland, wdiere he met with utter defeat and was 
slain at Downpatrick (1103) ; his son, Sigurd I. 
(1103-1131), married a daughter of Murroch O'Brian, 
King of Munster in Ireland. He was fascinated by 
the tales of adventure related of the first Crusade, 
and set out from Bergen (1107) with sixty vessels 
carrying ten thousand tried w^arriors. While on the 



332 History of the Middle Ages, 

way they defeated and despoiled tlie Mussulmans of 
Lisbon, of Algarve, and of the Balearic Isles. Ar- 
rived in the Holy Land, he was received with en- 
thusiasm by Baldwin, whom he assisted to take 
Sidon, to deliver Acre, and to open the siege of 
Tyre. Sigurd and his men, having finished their 
pious pilgrimage at the tomb of our Saviour, was 
presented by the king with a piece of the true cross. 
With this treasure he returned homeward by the 
way of Constantinople, Hungary, and Germany, but 
left his fleet and his warriors at the service of the 
Eastern Christians. The name of the pilgrim 
Sigurd long resounded among the coasts and fiords 
of the Northern seas. During the fifty years follow- 
ing the death of this hero Norway was in a state 
bordering on anarchy. On one hand was the aristo- 
cratic faction of the Baglers ; on the other the 
Birkibeins, who were backed by King Sverrer (1178- 
1202). This prince overcame his opponents, among 
them the archbishop of Drontheim, paying no heed 
to the fulminations of Innocent III., whom he suc- 
ceeded in mollifying. Feeling his end approach, he 
had himself placed upon his throne to die, as he had 
lived, a king. His grandson, Haco V. (1217-1263), 
is considered the greatest king of Norway. During 
his long reign he crushed the factions, enriched his 
subjects by commerce, and built a powerful fleet. 
As he had taken the cross, St. Louis wanted him to 
command the French fleet in the seventh Crusade ; 
but Haco preferred ravaging Scotland, where he died. 
The ardor for the holy wars cooled among the Norwe- 
gian kings, and their dynasty became extinct in 1319. 
Obscurity of Sweden ; St. Eric (1155-1161). 
—Sweden, destined to take a brilliant part in histo- 



Fourth Epoch. 333" 

ry, was at this time involved in domestic wars, so 
that for a long while it remained powerless and al- 
most unknown. Christianity had been introduced 
with very great difficulty into the north of the king- 
dom, or Sweden proper, under the dynasties of 
Lodbrog and Stenkil ; the southern province, or 
Gotliia, had been more docile. These two divisions 
of the petty kingdom in no wise resembled one an- 
other ; but, wishing to remain united, for upwards 
of a century they agreed in electing kings alternately 
(1133-1250). Sverker, the first king, elected by the 
Goths, organized the Swedish Church in concert 
with the cardinal legate, Nicholas Breakspere, af- 
terwards Adrian IV. The second king, elected by 
the Swedes, was St. Eric IX., to whom the Swedes 
proudly attribute their code entitled, " Laws of God 
and of St. Eric. " Not less brave than just, humane,, 
and generous, he made war against the pagan Finns,, 
who incessantly harassed his kingdom. Survey- 
ing the battle-field after a decisive victory, he- 
wept at the sight of so many unfortunates slain 
without baptism. To ensure his conquests in Fin- 
land, and to assist the spread of the Gospel there, 
he founded the city of Abo. 

His successor, Charles, a son of Sverker, founded 
the archbishopric of Upsal, and left the throne to- 
Canute, a son of St. Eric. Both these families be- 
came extinct with their fourth king. The crown 
then passed to the intriguing family of Folkung, 
represented by the young Waldemar, a son of Birger 
and a descendant of St. Eric by his mother. Bir- 
ger, for sixteen years regent of the kingdom, consoli- 
dated the conquests of St. Eric in Finland, founded 
Stockholm, constructed roads, and reformed the 



334 History of the Middle Ages. 

tribunals ; daughters, till then deprived of the pa- 
ternal inheritance, became entitled to half a brother's 
share. This great administrator died too soon for 
the good of the kingdom (126G). Waldemar, after 
many disorders, was dethroned by his brother Mag- 
nus, whose reign (1275-1290) was the triunij)!) of 
royal authority. 

Denmark ; the two Waldemars. — Sweyn, a 
nephew of Canute the Great, after a distracted reign 
(1047-1074), thought to prevent any future disturb- 
ance by ordaining that his sons should succeed him 
one after the other. In fact, five did thus succeed, 
but with very different fortune : the eldest was 
wanting in firmness ; the second, St. Canute IV. 
(1080-1086), full of energy, fell a victim to his zeal 
for the welfare of Church and state ; the third, un- 
moved, saw his subjects dying with famine ; the 
fourth, Eric, surnamed the Good, was loved by his 
people and made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; the 
fifth, Niels, or Nicholas, was cowardly and cruel. 
The Vandals, or wanderers, who were Slavs from 
the Elbe, after pillaging the country for some time, 
were driven out by the son of Eric the Good, Canute 
Laward, who became king of the Vandals. The 
affection of the Danes for this virtuous prince arous- 
ed the jealousy of his uncle Nicholas, who ordered 
his assassination (1131). Canute was canonized by 
tlie>Church, and his murder so incensed his brother 
and nephew, as well as the half-converted people 
of Vandalia, that they rose in arms against Nicho- 
las, and the troubles lasted till the accession of 
Waldemar I., a posthumous son of St. Canute. 
He raised Denmark to the highest degree of 2)ros- 
perity. 



Fourth Epoch, 335 

Waldemar I. (1157-1181), justly surnamed the 
Great, began by restoring order. In this lie had 
the help of Eskil, Archbishop of Lund, and the illus- 
trious Absalon, called Axel, Bishop of Roskilde, 
chancellor of the kingdom. He then marched 
against the Slavs of Vandalia to avenge his coun- 
try, his faith, and his hereditary rights. In concert 
with Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, he defeated 
and slew the pagan prince Niclot, and concluded 
an honorable treaty of peace with his successor, 
Prebislas. He fell upon the fortified place of Ar- 
cona, on the island of Eugen ;. took it and destroyed 
its great idol of Swantevit. The capture of AYollin, 
on tlie right bank of the Oder, completed the sub- 
mission of the coast. The Slavs, Obotrites, Wiltzes, 
and Wends became Christians when they were sub- 
jected to Waldemar's sway. He was for a short 
time the dupe of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa 
and his anti-pope ; but he speedily acknowledged 
the authority of Alexander HI. It was this pope 
who canonized Waldemar's father. 

Waldemar the Great founded Copenhagen. He 
drew up the enlightened and Christian laws that 
form the code of Scania and Zealand. He gladly 
welcomed the holy Abbot William of Paris, who 
helped to make science, religious discipline, and all 
virtues flourish in Denmark. Numbers of the Dan- 
ish youth went to study in the University of Pans, 
and returned profoundly learned to their native 
land. Denmark was but little behind the most civil- 
ized nations. 

King Waldemar I. left, among other children, 
Ingelberga, who became the unhappy queen of 
France (1193) ; Canute VI., a virtuous prince, whose 



ooO History of the Middle Ages. 

reign consolidated his father's conquests ; and AVal- 
demar II., surnamed the Victorious. He compelled 
the dukes of Mecklenburg and of the two Pome- 
ranias to pay homage ; he made peace between Swe- 
den and Norway ; and he led a successful expedition 
of a thousand good ships and sixty thousand men 
against the pagans of Esthonia. He was victorious 
in this undertaking, and founded the cities of Revel 
and Narva. The glory won by his celebrated stand- 
ard, the Danebrog, made it ever afterwards the sym- 
bol of bravery. 

The fortune of kings is fickle. In 1223 Waldcmar 
was treacherously seized by a vassal, and for three 
years confined as a prisoner, despite the protests of 
Pope Honorius III. On being ransomed he lost the 
suzerainty of the Pomeranias, Mecklenburg, and 
even of Holstein, and was forced to acknowledge 
the independence of Hamburg and Lubeck. To fill 
the measure of his misfortunes he was twice van- 
quished in pitched battle. Even his children were 
sources of grief to him : his eldest son, Waldemar, 
died; the virtuous Eric YL, who succeeded him, 
was murdered at the instigation of his brother Abel, 
who after a reign of two years met a just retribu- 
tion (June 29, 1252), and liis body Avas thrown into 
a morass. The last legitimate son of Waldemar II., 
Christopher I. (1252-1259), ascended the throne in- 
stead of Abel's sons. He w^as humbled by the king 
of Norway and the regent of Sweden, and persecuted 
the bishops who excommunicated him, and w\as at 
last poisoned. His son, Eric VII., after a troubled 
minority and an unfortunate reign, was despatched 
by a blow of a mace (]28G). 



Fourth Epoch. 337 

Sec. 2. The Slavonian Tribes. 

Political and Religious Condition^ of the 
Slavs. — x\long the coasts of the Baltic, from the 
Danish frontier to the great lakes of Finland, were 
idolatrous and bloodthirsty hordes of Slavonians, 
whose conversion from barbarism could be effected 
only by force of arms. Not one of these tribes 
formed a state, properly speaking, representative of 
the northern Slavs. The central Slavs were all 
Christians, but the Moravians had long been en- 
thralled ; the history of the Czechs of Bohemia, who 
were governed by dukes for three centuries, and by 
kings from the time of Ottocar I. (1198-1230), 
blends with the history of Germany, as the rulers of 
Bohemia were vassals of the German Empire. Of 
the southern Slavs, who Avere also Christians, the 
Wallachians formed the kingdom of Bulgaria (1186- 
1391), the Servians gave their princes the title of 
king, and even emperor (1085-1367), and the Croa- 
tians essayed to establish a kingdom of Dalmatia 
(1052-1088). But all of these people succeeded in 
freeing themselves from the Byzantine power only to 
become subject at last to Hungary, or still later to 
wear the yoke of the Ottoman Turks. 

But three Slavonian states merit particular atten- 
tion : the kingdom of Hungary, whose population 
is Slavonic, except the one hundred and eight Mag- 
yar families constituting the nobility, who are of 
different origin ; the duchy or kingdom of Poland, 
wholly Slavonic, and, like Hungary, united to the 
Roman Church ; Russia, also Slavonic, with a slight 
mingling of Scandinavians. The Russians acknow- 
ledged a political head, the grand duke. Their 



338 History of the Middle Ages. 

siDiritual head, was the patriarch of Constantinople, 
who was diverging with his flock more and more 
from tlie centre of unity, the Chnrch of Rome. 
These three border-lands of Eastern Europe felt the 
brunt of the Mongolian irruptions as scourges for 
their political and religious errors, and averted from 
other European countries the horrors of a fresh in- 
vasion. 

Royal Authority diminished in Hukgary ; 
Andrew II. and the Golden Bull. — The descend- 
ants of Arpad alone enjoyed the privilege of being 
crowned in Alba Royal with the crown of St. Ste- 
phen. This was often a subject of bloody conten- 
tion, as in the case of Solomon and Geysa I. (1075- 
1077). The successors of the latter, St. Ladislaus 
and Colomon, vanquished the Greeks of the Danube, 
and secured a desirable frontier on the south by 
subduing the Croatians and iH*oclaiming themselves 
kings of Dalmatia. They peopled and guarded 
Transylvania with tribes Avho had consented to be 
converted. Geysa settled the same jorovince with 
German colonists, who enriched the kingdom and 
guarded the eastern frontier, which was particularly 
exposed to the barbarous hordes wandering over the 
steppes of Upper Asia, whence the Magyars them- 
selves had emigrated. After the death of Geysa II. 
Hungary was rent by the pretensions of several com- 
petitors for the throne. Bela HI., carefully reared 
at the court of Constantinople, was successful 
through the influence of Pope Alexander III. ; in 
return he was devoted to the sovereign pontiffs and 
was preparing a Crusade when he died, leaving the 
throne to his eldest son, Emeric. But the youngest, 
Andrew, Duke of Dalmatia, allied with the duke of 



Fourth Epoch. 339 

Austria, came at the head of a powerful army to 
dethrone his brother. The latter was not discon- 
certed ; alone and unarmed, he penetrated the ene- 
my's camp, entered Andrew^s tent, and caused him 
to be arrested on the spot by his own soldiers and 
shut up in a castle. Having become king several 
years after, Andrew II. (1205-1235), who had dis- 
tinguished himself but little in the fifth Crusade, re- 
turned to find his own son Bela in rebellion against 
him. To strengthen his cause by gaining the mag- 
nates, who were then utterly vicious, dastardly, and 
exacting, Andrew foolishly signed the Golden Bull, 
wherein he granted the nobles the '' inheritance of 
fiefs, exemption from all military service and from 
every fine not agreed to by them, and even the right 
to resist the king by open force in case of violation of 
the bull." This gave form to anarchy, proclaimed 
the independence of the Magyar lords, and deprived 
the peasant of his natural protection, whicli was the 
royal authority. Having ascended the throne, Bela 
IV. paid the penalty of the revolt which had occa- 
sioned this impolitic measure. In vain he essayed to 
raise up fallen royalty ; the magnates resisted and 
called the duke of Austria to their aid ; while, to add 
to his embarrassment an invasion of the Mongols 
occurred at this time. 

Divisions ix Polaxd. — Boleslaus the Bold (1058- 
1081), a passionate, cruel, and debauched prince, 
assumed the title of king without the authorization 
of his liege lord, the Emperor Henry IV., who was 
then too busy elsewhere to chastise him. The Polish 
prince's pride was j^unished by its own excesses. 
Enraged at the remonstrances of Stanislaus, the 
Bishop of Cracow, Boleslaus stabbed him during the 



340 History of the Middle Ages. 

Holy Sacrifice and cut him to pieces. Excommu- 
nicated by St. Gregory VIL, driven away by the 
Poles, and tortured with remorse, the princely cri- 
minal hid his shame or* his repentance in a cloister. 
His successors were content with the title of duke. 
They assisted greatly in the conversion of the Pome- 
ranians, Prussians, and otlier tribes of the Baltic, 
who were considered as subjects of Poland. Pressed 
by the Poles on the south, the Danes on the north, 
the Teutonic Knights and Knights of the Sword in 
the centi-e, and by peaceable missionaries, as St. 
Otho of Bamberg, the apostle of Stettin, these be- 
lated pagans ended by becoming catechumens. 

Boleslaus III. (1102-1138), Duke of Poland, aided 
by his vassal, the prince of Pomerania, was proud to 
become the catechist of his pagan subjects ; his 
reign was fortunate, though he unwisely divided his 
Tast realms among his five sons, reserving for the 
ablest one the city of Cracow, with a certain supre- 
macy over the others. This division was the cause 
of the civil wars wliich ensanguined Poland for sixty- 
five years (1138-1202) until the death of the ambi- 
tious Micislaus, who survived his brothers. True, 
during this sad period the youngest son of Boles- 
laus, Casimir II., tlie Just, had improved the lot of 
the peasant, abolished onerous taxes, reformed courts 
of justice, and by his virtues secured the monarchy 
to his direct descendants. But his son, Lesko the 
White, and his grandson,. Boleslaus V., had troubled 
reigns ; the first was slain by a rebel vassal (1227), 
and the second overthrown by the irruption of the 
Mongols (1241). 

IlELiGiors AND Political Schism in" Russia, 
AND Continual Wars. — The grand duke Yaro- 



Fourth Epoch. 341 

slaf (1019-1054), son of St. Vladimir, was, like his 
father, absolute master of the Eussiaii possessions. 
By his testament he distributed princely, almost 
sovereign, appanages to each of his five sons. The 
holder of Kief was alone honored Avith the title of 
grand duke, and charged to lead the armies against 
foreign enemies and to enforce respect for his coun- 
try; nevertheless, the imprudence of such a provi- 
sion was fully demonstrated by three hundred years 
of civil wars, the ineflBciency of Eussian armies when 
confronted with the Asiatic hordes, and by the hu- 
miliating thraldom in which the Mongolian grand 
khans held the Eussian grand dukes. 

Five partitions, corresponding to the number of 
Yaroslavitch j^rinces, had been just made when there 
appeared on the river Doii^the ferocious Polovtsi, or 
Comans, who drank blood and fed on raw meat, and 
even on the dead bodies of the battle-field ; like the 
Uzbeks, who had preceded them, they were from the 
steppes of Turkistan. The Uzbeks and other bar- 
barians still roamed, unsubdued, on the plains of 
the Dnieper and the Dniester. On the Volga the 
Eastern Bulgarians, who Avere zealous Mohamme- 
dans, proudly maintained their iu dependence. To 
the Avest Finns, Livonians, Lithuanians, Prussians, 
all obstinate pagans, Avere in a threatening attitude. 
The Eussians, though converted, and at first Catho- 
lic, appeared indifferent or poAverless in regard to 
the conversion of the barbarians of their neighbor- 
hood. Indeed, they often hindered the aj^ostolate ; 
their married priests were Avanting in zeal and 
learniug ; their prelates, appointed by the successors 
of Photius and Cerularius, forbid the Eussian princes 
to give their daughters in marriage to sovereigns who 



342 JIlSTORY OF THE MlDDLE AgES. 

were of the Roman Church, saying that ^'thc priests 
of that rite have not good doctrine." This was to 
censure Yaroslaf, who had been proud to see his 
three daughters respectively ascending the thrones 
of France, Norway, and Hungary. Hence a schis- 
matic clergy severed Russia from the rest of Europe, 
from civilization, and from Catholic unity at the 
very time when it most needed the alliance of Chris- 
tian princes and the support of the Holy See. 

The su])rcmacy of the grand dukes of Kief was 
maintained, at least nominally, for about a century 
after the death of Yaroslaf, amid incessant civil 
wars and bloody struggles with the barbarians. 
From 115T the city of Kief had a rival, not in 
Moscow, then recently founded, but in the city of 
Vladimir. The masters of these two cities each took 
the title of grand duke or grand prince. Civil 
wars continuing, several flourishing cities, as Nov- 
gorod, set themselves up as republics, and in 1212 
monarchy ceased to liave even nominal existence. 
To be sure half a score of independent princes then 
warred with one another, regardless of the Mongols, 
who were approaching and had just beaten the 
Polovtsi (1223). After they had been made the 
slaves of Jenghis Khan they still continued their 
senseless feuds. 

So many political, moral, and religious errors 
drew down ui)on the Slavonian states a signal chas- 
tisement ; another scourge of God, more terrible 
than Attila was to overthrow the empires of Ui)i)er 
Asia, to shake the gates of Europe, to chastise the 
Slavonians. 



Fourth Epoch, 343 

Sec. 3. The Mongols and the Empire of Jenghis 
Khan. 

Cei^tral Asia i^ the Twelfth Century ; 
Jenghis Khan (1163-1227). — The nomad tribes of 
the yellow or Mongolian race had wandered for cen- 
turies on the high, cold, and extensive plateau 
known as Central Asia. Their love of the pastoral 
life made them unwilling to build cities or to as- 
sume the habits of civilized nations. In one of these 
tribes, under the tent (Jiordo) of a khan, or chief, 
named Bahadur was born, about 11G3, Temuchin, 
who was to win the title of Jenghis Khan (great 
chief), and to slaughter millions of men, ruin and 
pillage opulent kingdoms, make the earth tremble, 
and found the largest empire that has ever existed. 

At the age of thirteen his father died and left 
him master of forty thousand families. But a re- 
volt broke out ; he was obliged to flee for his life, 
and fell into the hands of a neighboring tribe, who 
set him at liberty on the payment of a small ransom. 
The aspect of affairs was soon changed. With a 
daring band, and the alliance of some neighboring 
khans, Temuchin marches against his rebellious 
subjects, slays many, and throws the prisoners into 
eighty caldrons of boiling water. Wonderful to 
relate, this act of cruelty conciliates his tribe and 
wins him the homage of the Mongols, who put them- 
selves under his leadership. Several chiefs, among 
others Ung, Khan of the Kerasites, refuse to submit 
to his mandates ; they are vanquished, despoiled, 
and their people pass under his yoke. Leading his 
followers to the bank of a river, the conqueror fills 
a cup with water, and, draining it in their presence,. 



344 History of the Middle Ages. 

swears that tlieiicefortli lie will share with them the 
bitterness as well as the sweets of life ; they, in re- 
turn, proclaim him their great chief, Jenghis Khan. 
Tiiese hitherto wandering tribes Avere then gather- 
ed together near the sources of the Amoor, near the 
beautiful Lake Baikal. Disdaining the icy plains 
of the north, Jenghis Kahn turned his eyes towards 
the south. Four mighty empires shared Central 
Asia : to the northeast Kin, founded by the Tartars ; 
to the southeast China proper, then governed by 
the Sung dynasty ; to the northwest Kara-Kitai, 
peopled by Oigurs and bordering the Altai Moun- 
tains ; finally, Tangut, near the Himalaya Mountains, 
occupied by a tribe of Turks. The first-named em- 
pire had the supremacy over China, which jmid it 
tri1)ute, and over Tangut and the Mongols, whose 
khans were subordinate to it. Against this emj^ire, 
whose monarch was his sovereio-n, Jens^his Khan first 
led his hordes, thirsting for blood and plunder. 
For five years he ravaged cities, especially Pekin, 
which he burnt, with its gorgeous palace of the em- 
2")erors ; he slaughtered the aged as useless, princes as 
dangerous, prisoners of war as cowards. " The high- 
est happiness of man," said he to his companions in 
arms, " is to vanquish his enemies, drive them before 
him, despoil them, and to see those wiiom they love 
weeping, without feeling any pity himself.'' This 
ferocious conqueror left one of his commanders 
to subdue, or rather to ruin, the emperor of the 
Kin, whilst he himself went nine hundred leagues 
thence to exact tribute of Tangut, then to lay 
-waste Kara-Kitai, where he met with many Chris- 
tians, among others a bishop whose aspect inspired 
liim Avith respect — a sentiment hitherto unknown to 



Fourth Epoch, 345 

him. These Christians had brought into that coun- 
try with them the arts, the sacred sciences, and a 
form of writing whose characters Jenghis Khan 
adopted for tlie Mongol language. Had he wished 
to free and to civilize his nation, he would have stop- 
ped here; the Mongols were independent, opulent, 
and apt to learn. 

But his hordes had already reached the summits 
of the great mountain-chain of Bolor-Tagh, where 
the central plateau terminates, and whence the eye 
could see the smiling plains, the blooming cities, 
and all the riches of a new Asiatic empire. It was 
Khorasmia, which stretched from the Aral Sea to 
the Indian Ocean, and from the Caspian Sea to the 
great Bolor chain. This empire, governed by the 
haughty Mohammed Koteb-ed-Deen, comprised, be- 
sides all Persia, wrested from the Seljukian Turks, a 
part of the Scythian regions and the countries of 
India, formerly subject to the Gaznevides ; it was 
the o^reatest of the Mohammedan kino-doms. Jen- 
ghis Khan proposed to form a treaty of alliance with 
Mohammed. Eepulsed with contempt, the Mongol 
feigned to have received an order from Heaven 
through the Christian bishop ; he throws himself 
upon Khorasmia, marches straight upon Bokhara, 
takes it, enters the grand mosque on horseback, and 
dashes the Koran to the ground in contempt (1218). 
Having pillaged and ruined this city, he sets out for 
Samarcand, where 100,000 soldiers lay down their 
arms ; thirty thousand of the inhabitants are put to 
the sword and thirty thousand reduced to slavery. 
Khiva, Balkh, with all the other great cities, were 
ruined ; the country was desolated for a long time, 
perhaps for ever ; the Kliorasmians emigrated to- 



346 History of the Middle Ages. 

wards Syria, the dastardly Mohammed retiring to an 
island in the Caspian Sea, where he died of vexation 
(1222). 

From the midst of these smoking ruins Jenghis 
Khan sent two of his lieutenants, with his eldest son, 
Tushi, against the ])eople of the Caucasus, avIio re- 
sisted for a time, but could not keep back, tlie tor- 
rent. The Mongols attacked tlie Polovtsi and crush- 
ed them. One of the vanquished chiefs arrived in 
Eussia and announced to the assembly of princes at 
Kief : ^^ They have seized our country ; to-morrow 
they will seize yours." In fact, ten deputies from 
the Mongols soon came to demand an alliance with 
the Eussians. The deputies were massacred, and 
the armies of the princes and the Polovtsi assembled 
on the Kalka not far from its confluence with the 
Dnieper. The Mongols coming up, battle ensued. 
The allied army was overwhelmed with signal disas- 
ter ; thousands of dead strewed the plain ; the prison- 
ers were m,ercilessly murdered; the princes were smoth- 
ered under boards ; the conquerors set their tables for 
a sumptuous banquet in the midst of the dead (1224). 

The Mongols did not cross the Dnieper. Jenghis 
Khan recalled his hordes to march against the em- 
pire of Tangut, which he annihilated. He then re- 
turned to die near the place of his birth, where thou- 
sands of tents were pitched, forming Karakorum, 
the capital of that gigantic empire. The body of 
Jenghis Khan was buried at the foot of a tree on the 
top of a high mountain (1227). 

Partition of the Mongol Empire ; Devasta- 
tion OR Eussia ; Invasions of Poland and of 
Hungary. — Following Jenghis Khan's wishes, his 
four sons divided his vast empire, although but one 



Fourth Epoch. 34? 

bore the title of grand klian and was chief over the 
others. Octai (1227-1242) was elected grand khan 
at Karakorum ; his share comprised Mongolia and 
the remote Oriental empires. His brother, Jagatai, 
inherited the central part of Asia, to which he left 
his name ; in this empire Timur, also called Tamer- 
lane, was to appear in the following century. The 
youngest, Tului, governed India and Persia, which 
were together known as Iran ; the eldest, Tushi, 
being dead, his son Batu was declared khan of the 
Kapchak, a name designating countries conquered 
or to be conquered beyond the Caucasus. Batu, 
having taken command of an army of 300,000 men, 
set out at once for the west. He fell upon the Bul- 
garians of the Volga, took their great city of Briaki- 
mov (Bolgary), which disapjDeared for ever, and put 
all the inhabitants to the sword. The Eussian 
princes had profited by the retreat of the Mongols 
only to renew their shameful intestine wars. Batu 
marched on their principal' cities ; Kesan, Moscow, 
Yladimir, Kief were burnt, and all the inhabitants 
butchered, save monks and nuns. '' Russian heads," 
says an eye-witness, ^^fell under the steel of the 
Tartars like heads of barley under the reaper's 
sickle." Batu then fixed his residence at Sarai, on 
the Volga, where he rested from his work of destruc- 
tion (1238). 

The grand khan, Octai, did not approve of his 
nephew's inaction. To spur him on he sent a fresh 
army into the Kapchak, under the command of his 
son Gaiuk. The army first marched towards Po- 
land ; at Chmielnik it met the Polish troops, beat 
them, and burnt Cracow. New troops were levied 
in Poland, but they were cut to j^ieces at Lieznitz in 



348 History of the Middle Ages. 

Silesia (1241). Poland was in alarm, Boleslans V. 
in despair, when tidings were brought that the 
Mongols had passed into Hungary ; they numljered 
500,000. King Bela IV. was awaiting them at the 
defile of the Sayo ; but he was inefficiently supported 
by his magnates, held in check by the ambitious 
duke of Austria, and abandoned by the Comans, 
whose king the Hungarians had just killed. Bela 
struggled courageously, nevertheless, but his ene- 
mies slew 100,000 of his men and began to ravage 
Hungary with unparalleled atrocity. A^illages were 
surrounded and burned, with all they contained; 
cities were comjiletely pillaged, the inhabitants 
dragged to the public square ; then the Mongols 
butchered the men, their sons despatched the chil- 
dren with liamnicrs, while their wives tore the Hun- 
garian women to pieces, and afterwards served up 
their flesh as a repast for their victorious husbands. 
This scene of horror lasted two years ; the king fled, 
the magnates were decimated, and the Emperor 
Frederick II. was making war on the pope (1243). ' 

Gaiuk, recalled to Karakorum to succeed his fa- 
ther, quitted Hungary, whither the Mongols never 
more returned. The unhappy country was long in 
healing her wounds, repeopling her solitudes, sowing 
her fields, and building her cities and churches ; 
nevertheless she did effect all this. Poland was not 
so fortunate ; three times more she was horrified by 
the sight of the Mongols of the Kapchak crossing 
her frontiers, and led on, too, by Eussians. In vain 
did brave Lesko the Black, the successor of Boles- 
laus v., strive for victory at Gaslicza (1280) ; he 
could not shield his country from their atrocities 
and from its own weakness. Still, the Mongols had 



Fourth Epoch. 349 

met with a resistance which won their respect. But 
of all European countries Russia had most to suffer 
from these ferocious conquerors. She servilely re- 
signed herself to her fate, without essaying to shake 
olf her galling chains, even when her oppressors be- 
came Mohammedans or fell upon one another. The 
grand duke of Russia was invested with his dignity 
by the khan of the Golden Horde. To him he paid 
homage and tribute. Russia, cut off from Europe 
and the Church, remained subject to the Mongols 
for two hundred and thirty-five years. 

Gkeat Mongol Kiiaxs ; Destructio:n" of the 
Order of the Assassins (1250), the Caliphate 
OF Bagdad (1258), axd the Seljukiax Turks 
(1307). — Octal, son of Jenghis Khan, was succeeded 
by his son Gaiuk (1242-1249), after which Mangu 
(1249-1259) and Koublai (1259-1291), both sons of 
Tului, were successively proclaimed great khans ; Iran 
they left to their brother Hulagu. The latter, by 
invitation of Caliph Motassem, and by the express 
order of Mangu, approached the heights Avhich the 
'' Old Man of the Mountain " had covered with 
fortified castles. In this measure of the Mongol 
khan all the emirs of Syria assisted. The abominable 
sect of Assassins had at this time a youthful grand 
master named Roken-ed-Deen, who was the seventh 
successor of the infamous Hassan. At the approach 
of Hulagu Roken-ed-Deen was disconcerted ; he de- 
liA'Cred up his castles to the khan and sued for 
mercy, but in vain. After his death the sectaries, 
hotly followed up, were either exterminated or forced 
to bury themselves in deserts and caves (1256). 

Two years later Hulagu resolved to put an end 
to the Mohammedan caliphate, which had long been 



350 History of the Middle Ages. 

shorn of its power but not of its pretensions. He 
advanced towards Bagdad with his army ; a bloody 
battle ensued on the Tigris, whose waters, turned 
aside from their channel, drowned the remnants of 
the Mussulman army. Motassem surrendered at dis- 
cretion. The inhabitants of Bagdad were ordered to 
depart unarmed ; 200,000 were massacred. The ca- 
liph was forced to point out his immense treasures, 
and was then condemned to die. So as not to spill 
his blood, they wrapped him in carpets and beat him 
to death with clubs (1258). 

Thus ended with the last Abbasside caliph the 
power which Mohammed had left to his vicars. The 
caliphate lasted six hundred and twenty-six years ; 
for five hundred years its seat was at Bagdad, where 
from the outset it attained a prosperity destined to 
end in disaster. 

Fifty years after the dissolution of the caliphate 
a successor of Hulagu put an end to the Turkish 
sultanate of Iconium. The Seljuks had enslaved 
the caliphs, domineered over Mussulman Asia, and 
drawn the arms of the Crusaders to the East; they 
scarcely survived the holy expeditions of the Chris- 
tian knights, whose avengers were the Mongols. 

While in the West the sanguinary Mongols were 
carrying out the strict orders of a mysterious jus- 
tice, in the far East the great khan, Kublai, break- 
ing away from the customs of his predecessors, en- 
couraged agriculture, commerce, and literature. 
Having become master of Southern China by the 
taking of Nankin (1279) and the fall of the Sungs, 
who had reigned there for three centuries, Kublai 
founded the twenty-first dynasty of the Celestial 
Empire, rebuilt Pekin and named it Cambalu, and 



Fourth Epoch, 351 

there received European travellers with honor, 
among them the famous Venetian, Marco Polo, 
who lived seventeen years at his court, and the 
[Franciscans, who founded an archbishopric and a 
flourishing mission at Cambalu. The empire of 
Kublai stretched from the Japan Sea to the Mediter- 
ranean and the great lakes of Finland ; its popula- 
tion numbered over five hundred million, and could 
furnish at least five million soldiers. Fortunately, 
this gigantic empire found limits in its very mag- 
nitude. Kublai was wise enough to suffer partitions 
already made to become definitive divisions. Na- 
tional reactions, i:»retensions of j^rinces, diversity of 
climate, customs, and religions still further sub- 
divided this unwieldy unity. 



CHAPTER YI. 

THE TWO GREAT CENTURIES OF THE MIDDLE 
AGES. 

Through the mighty impulse given by the popes many sahita- 
ry institutions are established ; neW religious orders spring 
lip, which attack error and vice, convert the infidels, and 
teach theological science. At the same time modern nation- 
alities and languages take shape. Christian art produces its 
masterpieces, the people erect imperishable monuments. 

Sec. 1. Zenith of the Papacy and the Church; the 

Religiotis Orders; Proimgatioii and Vindication 
of Cliristianity, 

AsCEiq-DENCY OF THE SPIRITUAL OVER THE TEM- 
PORAL ; THE Papacy. — The more we study this 
troubled but interesting epoch the more we perceive 



352 HiSTOR Y OF THE MlBDLE A GES. 

that its most prominent trait is the conflict of faith 
with tlie calcuhitions of reason, tlie tendency of ideas 
to free tliemselves from the weight of matter, the 
assertion of the superiority of tlie spiritual over the 
temporal. The result, if not a complete victory, 
which is impossible here below, was at least the 
marked ascendency of moral energy over brute force. 
It is difficult indeed to find two consecutive centu- 
ries in history that offer so many strongly-marked 
characters, heroic examples, and monuments or in- 
stitutions so useful, magnificent, and lasting. It 
was in this period that the Crusades took place, 
modern states were founded, municipal privileges had 
their origin, and the liberty of nations was first rec- 
ognized ; it saw the birth of twenty religious orders 
devoted to the service of humanity, most of which 
are still in existence ; then was taught a holy and 
sublime theology, an enlightened jurisprudence, a 
secure philosophy ; remarkable literary works were 
produced, rivers were bridged, commercial relations 
est[iblished ; then arose palaces, and those magnifi- 
cent cathedrals whose graceful spires reached heaven- 
ward, whose walls spoke to all in tlie simple, artistic 
language of the early masters, and whose very win- 
dows, in the richest of colors, clironiclcd the glory 
and the suffering of the Church on earth and the 
triumph of its saints in heaven. Some writers have 
applied the title of ''Ages of Faith " to the two cen- 
turies between the election of Gregory VII. (1073) 
and the convocation of the Fourteenth General 
Council by St. Gregory X. (1274), and, in fact, dur- 
ing this period wonderful things were accomplished 
through faith. Others prefer to style this glori- 
ous era the artistic and literary revival. All ao-ree 



Fourth Epoch. 353 

that in this age tlio Papacy was at the zenith of its 
power and the influence of the Holy Church receiv- 
ed its highest development. 

During the three centuries of persecution the head 
of the Church was seen but little ; he had slight in- 
fluence on pagan princes, people, and countries. But 
after Constantine the full splendor of the Papacy 
shone at the councils, where it faced heresies and 
was without appeal in general causes. And this 
splendor was still greater after Charlemagne, for the 
Roman pontiff, now a temporal sovereign, often 
disposed of the coveted crown of the revived Western 
Empire, and he constantly received the voluntary 
homage of barbarian kings whose subjects had been 
converted to the faith by the missionaries from 
Rome. But later, when kings and emperors med- 
dled with spiritual things or made ill use of their 
power by oppressing their subjects, the pope faced 
the despots. He remembered, and the peoi^le too 
reminded him, that he was the supreme pastor of 
Christians, that he had power to bind and to loose, 
that he alone could bridle the tyranny of princes, 
hinder popular seditions, chastise delinquents, and 
promote the public weal by serving the interests of 
religion. The pope intrepidly undertook the diffi- 
cult task, and almost invariably succeeded. Our 
^'' Peace Congresses " vainly seek to suppress revolu- 
tions and wars, to repress abuses of poAver and the 
excesses of liberty, and to secure peace, concord, and 
happiness to nations — an ideal which tlie Roman 
pontiffs almost realized. The jDontifical authority 
was everywhere respected, and the effects of its exer-. 
cise were wholesome. 

We have seen how the popes were the first to move 



354 History of the Middle Ages 

for the freodoni of the Holy See, tlie episcopate, and 
the entire Church from the interference of the sec- 
ular power. We have seen Avhat a lofty, nay, he- 
roic, aim they set for the Christian warriors in the 
Crusades. At the same time they favored learning, 
encouraged the arts, and fostered a devotion for 
the missions and for all other good works. And 
when a pious institution, originating amongst pri- 
vate individuals, began to bring forth fruit, it was 
soon honored by the sanction of the sovereign pon- 
tiff. Such were the Truce of God, chivalry, the as- 
sociations for building churches, for constructing 
bridges, making roads, protecting pilgrims ; such 
were the universities, and such especially were the 
religious orders. 

Orders of Mokks, of Regular Cako:n'S, ai^d 
OF K:n^ights or Militant Monks. — During the 
preceding era the Abbey of Cluny had begun a 
wholesome change ; instead of isolated, independ- 
ent monasteries, united only by use of the same 
rule, houses were founded which continued subject 
to the mother-house, which was the common centre 
and the supreme authority. The congregation of 
Cluny was really the first religious order ; it fur- 
nished the model on which new orders were formed. 
This period witnessed the rise of many, but twen- 
ty-two are considered the most remarkable, and 
eleven of these were founded in France or by 
Frenchmen. 

In 107G St. Stephen of Thiers built himself a 
hermitage in Limousin ; hence the origin of the 
order of Grandmont, whose members were called 
Good Men on account of their humility. In 1084 
St. Bruno of Cologne, theologue of Rheims, was 



Fourth Epoch. 355 

conducted by St. Hugh, Bishop of Grenoble, into 
the rugged mountains of Dauphiny, where they 
founded the Carthusians, who were both anchorets 
and cenobites, and who have preserved the primitive 
spirit of their order to our own time. In 1098 St. 
Kobert withdrew to Citeaux, near Dijon, where he 
might live with greater austerity than was required 
by the rule of St. Benedict. This austerity, which 
repulsed others, attracted St. Bernard, a Burgun- 
dian nobleman. At twenty-two Bernard become a 
Cistercian with thirty of his friends, and was soon 
imitated by his five brothers and his aged father. 
The renown of this great saint gave the Cistercians 
the name of Bernardines ; they are now commonly 
known as Trappists. In 1099 Blessed Robert of 
Abrissel, a Breton missionary, founded two monas- 
teries, one for monks, the other for nuns, at Fonte- 
vrault. 

To the number of these monastic orders, nearly 
all grafted on the Benedictine stock, and more or 
less cut off from the world, the twelfth century 
added the orders of Regular Canons, who, taking 
the rule of St. Augustine for a base, bound them- 
selves to the obligations of the cloister while still 
performing the functions of the sacred ministry. 
Such was the congregation of St. Victor, founded at 
Paris in 1105 by the famous professor, William of 
Champeaux ; the ancient abbey of St. Genevieve, 
which was soon united to St. Victor's, gave the 
members of this congregation the title of Canons of 
St. Genevieve. St. Norbert, who had been chaplain 
of the Emperor Henry V., and who was then elo- 
quently preaching the truths of salvation everywhere 
in France, by the direction of the pious Bishop 



356 JIl STORY OF THE MlDDLE AgES. 

Bcirtboloniew of Laoii chose for liis settlement a 
valley since called Prcmontre, in tlie forest of 
Coiicy. h\ this abbey began the order of Prenion- 
strants, or rremonstratensians, also called W'liite 
Canons, Avhich still flourishes in Belgium, Austria, 
France, and the United States. 

The eight military religious orders spoken of in 
the history of the Crusades were also founded in the 
twelfth century ; of these three were in Palestine, 
three in Spain, one in Portugal, and one in Livonia. 
On the battle-field these various militant religious 
did not differ in brayery, abnegation, or devotion to 
the cause of Christ ; but in their monasteries the 
Templars lived under the Benedictine rule of Ci- 
teaux, while the Hospitalers and the Teutonic 
Knights followed the rule of St. Augustine. There 
were the same differences betw^een the three Spanish 
orders of Alcantara, Calatrava, and St. James, the 
first two having adopted the rule of St. Benedict, or 
of Citeaux, the latter that of the Kegular Canons, or 
of St. Augustine. In Portugal the Cistercian Order 
of Avisa in course of time was merged in the 
Knights of Calatrava, while the Knights of the 
Sword in Livonia disappeared in the similar order of 
Teutonic Knights. 

Mendicant and Charitable Ordees. — The 
thirteenth century, which began during the illustri- 
ous pontificate of Innocent III. (1198-1216), saw 
the appearance of religious families diifering in their 
aim, their spirit, and their rules, as well as in their 
external characteristics, from the orders that had 
])receded. Heretofore the monastery, the regular 
cloister, or the military post had required the per- 
formance of duties which, though not incomiDatible 



Fourth Epoch. 357 

with the priesthood and the priestly functions, are 
at least independent of them, even if they do not 
jometimes hinder them. And, besides, the monk, re- 
quired to reside in the monastery, and deprived by 
vow of the right to own property or to enjoy a reve- 
nue, looks to his order, of course, for his sustenance. 
Heace the order must possess revenues. But now 
appears a new body of men, mostly priests, whose 
mission is to seek souls ; they are poor, their con- 
vents are poor ; when they go abroad they beg their 
bread on the way ; after laboring hard they return 
to theit house, confident that their Heavenly Father 
will take care of them. Such are the mendicant 
friars, vho are divided into the four great orders 
founded at this epoch. 

The fiist two are, the Order of Preaching Friars, 
or Dominicans, called also Black Friars and Jaco- 
bins, founded at Toulouse by the eloquent and 
zealous Castilian, St. Dominic de Guzman ; and the 
Order of Friars Minor, often called Gray Friars be- 
cause of the color of their habit in Ensrland and 
some other countries. This last order, which has 
been divided into several branches, was founded by 
the humble and seraphic St. Francis of Assisi. It 
includes Capuchins, Observantines, Alcantarines, and 
Eeformed Franciscans. These two illustrious fami- 
lies arose at the same time, for the same end, and 
through the same inspiration. One day two pil- 
grims met in a church in Eome; they had never 
seen one another before, and yet they embraced, ex- 
claiming : '^ You are my brother !" They were St. 
Dominic and St. Francis. The pope, in a mysteri- 
ous vision, had beheld the two supporting on their 
shoulders the basilica of St. John Lateran, the 



358 History of the Middle Ages. 

mother and mistress of all churches. In fact, these 
two holy patriarchs during their lives accomplished 
prodigies in the service of religion, as their illustri- 
ous and prolific posterity have done ever since. In- 
nocent III. approved both orders ; his successa*, 
Honorius III., solemnly confirmed them (1217 aid 
1221). The same pontiffs changed the Carmelite 
monks into mendicants. In imitation of the 
prophet Eli as they had made their first aboda on 
Mt. Carmel, in Palestine. They are often spoken 
of in history as White Friars. In 1256 Alexander 
IV. united into one mendicant order, under the 
name of Hermits of St. Augustine, or Augustinians, 
sometimes called Austin Friars, all the religious of 
the West, who at that time were living separately. 
It is to be remarked that each of these great orders 
includes three : a first order for men, a second order 
for women, and a Third Order, composed of tertia- 
ries, or such as live in the world. But frequently 
tertiaries are assembled in religious communities. 
Many of the communities of female religious in the 
United States are of tlie Third Order. 

After the mendicant orders, who sought only 
souls, there were formed during the same century 
orders apparently concerned with tlie body only. 
A noble lord founded at Montpellier the Congrega- 
tion of the Holy Ghost, whose end was to nurse the 
sick in hospitals ; Innocent III. approved it. Urban 
II. had likewise approved the Hospitalers of St. An- 
thony, who were established in Dauphiny when the 
fearful epidemic called the " sacred fire," or St. An- 
thony's fire, was rife. On the appearance of the 
leprosy in the West lazar-houses were opened every- 
where ; there was also founded an association of 



Fourth Epoch. 359 

clerics and laymen, who shut themselves up for ever 
in these houses, ""and for the love of Jesus Christ 
braved so nauseating an odor that they may well be 
ranked among the martyrs." The Emperor Fred- 
erick Barbarossa, in destroying Milan, had ruined a 
great number of families ; to relieve them the order 
of the " Humiliated " was instituted, in which the 
highest nobility bound themselves by vow to manu- 
facture woollen stuffs for clothing the indigent. 
Many Christians languished in Mohammedan dun- 
geons, where, for want of ransom, they w^ere ill- 
treated and in danger of losing their faith. St. 
John of Matha, a doctor of Paris, born in Provence, 
and St. Felix de Valois, a prince of the blood-royal 
of the Capetians, founded the Order of the Holy 
Trinity for the Redemption of Captives, approv- 
ed by Innocent III. (1198). Robed in their tri- 
colored habit, the Trinitarians, sometimes called 
Mathurins, begged an alms at every Christian door ; 
then they betook themselves to Granada, Morocco, 
or Tunis to ransom the captives from their chains 
and bring them back to their native land. If the 
sum they had brought did not suffice to deliver all 
the captives, they gave themselves as substitutes for 
the prisoners, and remained in chains till some one 
ransomed them. Heroic emulation gave rise to the 
Order of Our Lady of Mercy, whose end also was to 
redeem Christian captives. It was founded by St. 
Peter Nolasco, a rich gentleman of Languedoc. 
With the assistance of King James I. of Aragon he 
established it at Barcelona (1223). 

Several purely monastic orders also were founded 
in the thirteentli century. We shall mention only 
the Paulist monks of Hungary and Portugal ; the 



360 History of the 3Iiddle Ages, 

Sylvcstritiiis, founded in 1231 by St. Sylvester of 
Gazzolini for the strict observance of the rule of 
St. Benedict in Italy ; and the Order of the Servites 
of Mary, established in 1232, on Monte Senario, by 
seven pious senators of Florence. This is enough to 
justify the admiration excited by this period, in 
which, although no doubt crimes and errors were 
rife, yet faith accomplished wonders, increased the 
opportunities for heroism, and brought forth a mar- 
vellous variety and number of religious orders. 

Propagation^ of the Faith among the Tribes 
OF the Baltic and in the Remote East. — It can- 
not be doubted that Christian piety made great pro- 
gress during a period so prolific of holy institutions. 
Piety filled the new convents with zealous men and 
women, preached Christianity to unbelievers, con- 
founded heretics by the lustre of its incomparable 
science and the splendor of its ceremonial. This 
period was crowned by the institution of the tri- 
umphant feast of the Blessed Sacrament (1264). 

At the opening of this epoch there were still 
some countries of Europe not converted. On the 
coasts of the Baltic the Slavs (Obotrites, Wiltzes, 
Pomeranians) kept tlieir gods through hatred of 
tlie Germans ; the mixed tribes (Prussians, Letts, 
Lithuanians), half Germans, lialf Slavs, contin- 
ued to foster and increase their religious and 
national antipathy ; finally, the Tschudi (Livo- 
nians, Courlanders, Esthonians, Finns), of a race 
wholly foreign to the four other races of Eu- 
rope, practised their gross worship with impunity, 
doubly protected by the snows of the north and 
the isolation of their country. Apostolic men, liow- 
ever, had ventured into those infidel lands and had 



Fourth Epoch. 361 

met with martyrdom. Apostolic heroism did not 
suffice. It needed the support of another kind of 
heroism — that of the Scandinavian kings, the dukes 
of Saxony and Poland, of armies of Crusaders, and 
above all of the Teutonic Knights, the Knights of the 
Sword. The work of conversion was effected ; bish- 
oprics, churches, and monasteries were erected there 
as elsewhere in Europe. At the close of the thir- 
teenth century Lithuania alone resisted Christiani- 
ty, but completely surrendered in the following cen- 
tury, when it became part of Poland. 

From the seventh century Mohammedanism had 
been an impenetrable barrier against the entrance of 
Christian missionaries into Central Asia. However, 
it is certain that the Gospel was preached at an 
early date in the far East by Nestorians or by Ca-' 
tholics ; but the impossibility of communicating 
with the central authority of the West left the East- 
ern Christians without the unfailing test of the 
purity of their traditional belief. They retained only 
certain external forms, so that we see with astonish- 
ment that bells, monasteries, pilgrimages, litanies, 
and processions are used in the worship of the mod- 
ern Buddhists, and that the pomps of the papal 
court have been imitated, or rather travestied, by 
the court of the Grand Lama. A prince of Central 
Asia, supposed to be Ung, Khan of the Kerasites, 
sent ambassadors to Pope Alexander III. This was 
in the thirteenth century, and they arrived in Rome 
after a wonderful journey and a thousand mishaps. 
Transported with joy, the pope congratulated the 
prince, whom he called Priest John (Prester John), 
commended his zeal, and consecrated the chief of his 
ambassadors bishop (1177). It is not known whether 



3G2 History of the Middle Ages, 

the embassy succeeded in reaching their far-off coun- 
try through the Mohammedan districts which inter- 
vened. But when later the Mongol conquests had 
levelled all barriers, the popes, St. Louis, and the 
Venetians at various times made several attempts to 
get news from Prester John's empire. Amongst the 
adventurous travellers, who penetrated by different 
routes even to Upper Asia, were the Dominican 
Ascelino and the Franciscans Plan-Carpin, Rubru- 
quis, and John de Montcorvin. Two Venetians, 
brothers named Polo, visited the court of the great 
khan or mogul, and the son of one of them, the 
famous Marco Polo, S2:)ent many years in Asia, and 
has left us a faithful account of his travels. John 
de Montcorvin filled all hearts with joy by the tid- 
ings that he had just baptized six thousand Mon- 
gols under the very eyes of Kublai, the Grand 
Khan, that princes and people were well disposed 
toward our holy religion, and that a magnificent 
harvest was ripening at the other end of the world. 
In fact, a prosperous mission was founded, and it 
flourished in China during the Mongol dynasty of 
Yuen, the descendants of Jenghis Khan. But new 
revolutions in Asia again broke up the relations be- 
tween the Asiatic Church and Eome ; the downfall 
of the Yuens in 1368, and the distractions occasion- 
ed by the great schism of the West, delayed the re- 
vival of the missions to China until the sixteenth 
century. 

Fanatical Sects ; Establishment of the In- 
quisition.— While the Church in the West reform- 
ed her discipline, recovered her liberty, and accom- 
plished wonders, most dangerous enemies were aris- 
ing in her midst. They sought to undermine her 



Fourth Epoch 363 

foundations by assailing her constitution, her doc- 
trines, her worships, her hierarchy, and they heeded 
no counsels but those of their own dark and fanati- 
cal enthusiasm. One of these ranters called himself 
the Son of God ; he forbid the sacraments and the 
payment of tithes. Another attacked the Mass, 
singing, and the use of images. Others, like the 
Waldenses, Vaudois, or Poor Men of Lyons, as they 
were variously called, had a horror of the Catholic 
festivals, the sacred rites, and especially of confes- 
sion. At their meetings they were entirely occupied 
in reading the Holy Scriptures. Others, pluming 
themselves upon the name of pure, contended that 
there were two oj^posite princij^tles or gods : one the 
good principle, who permitted all things to his fol- 
lowers, the other the evil one, who ruled the visi- 
ble world, where everything, religion, sacred edifices, 
the jiriesthood, the Church itself, all were sinful. 
Among the latter were the Albigenses, whose doc- 
trines were derived from the Paulicians and the 
Manicheans. It is impossible to describe the abomi- 
nations of these sectaries, or the excesses they were 
led to commit in their diabolical zeal. Heaven in- 
spired the eloquence of such men as Eobert d'Ar- 
brissel, Norbert, and Bernard, who by persuasion, 
by the example of a life of mortification, and by the 
evidence of miracles labored to win back these 
wretches to the faith. The pope and the bishops 
took an active part in the same work ; and yet these 
efforts were nearly all unsuccessful, or at least un- 
satisfactory. The establishment of the mendicant 
orders and the exemplary lives led by their members 
made some impression on the heretics, but yet only 
a few were converted. To prevent them from mur- 



364 History oi the Middle Ages. 

dering monks, nuns, and friars, and from burning 
churches and monasteries, as well as to keep them 
from overturning civil society itself, nothing was 
left but to send armies of Crusaders against them. 
They were forced to yield, and agreed to submit to 
the laws ; but with many this submission was only 
apparent. Many of them continued to scatter the 
poison of their doctrines in secret. An essential 
duty of bishops, and especially of the jjope, who is 
the supreme bisliop, is to watch over the purity of 
doctrine not alone of the clergy but even more of 
the laity. Every bishopric is therefore, of divine 
right, a tribunal for trying cases of faitli, and such 
as regard morals or the discipline of the Church. 
The Eoman j^ontiff, as judge of last resort, has the 
right to set up extraordinary tribunals, furnished 
with ampler pdiwers and armed with greater author- 
ity than the ordinary episcopal courts. And these 
tribunals were constituted eitlicr subject to, or inde- 
pendent of, the bishop of the diocese. And that is 
what was done in the thirteenth century under In- 
nocent IV. by the establishment of the Inquisition, 
or Holy Office. This was an ecclesiastical tribunal 
where cases of faith were adjudicated, and stubborn, 
or relajosed heretics subjected to the censures of the 
Church. The Inquisition never gave sentence of 
death. But as the princes, kings, and emperors of 
that time, including Frederick II., looked upon here- 
sy, blasjohemy, and sacrilege as crimes against civil 
society, tliey seized the culprit on his leaving the 
Inquisition and inflicted the penalty of death. In 
becoming Christian most of the nations of Europe 
still retained their old contempt of life, and could 
not be expected to show much mercy to those whom 



Fourth Epoch. 365 

they considered as worse than mere enemies. Many 
of the institutions of the Middle Ages, especially the 
Inqnisition, have been severely criticised in our 
time, and justly too, perhaps ; but it would be well 
to remember that the people of the Middle Ages 
would quite as severely criticise our modern indiffer- 
ence to errors that are fatal to society as well as to 
religion. 

Sec. 2. Theological Sciences, National Languages, 
Christian Art. 

Okigin" of Scholastic Theology ; St. Anselm 
AND Peter Lombard. — God is able to turn the 
greatest evil into a means of good. Heresies 
swarmed in the eleventh century, and their followers 
rushed into every excess. Then ajipeared men of 
genius who brought their superior reasoning to the 
defence of the faith, and who, reverently fathoming 
our sublime mysteries, cast floods of light upon 
things hitherto dark to the human intellect. 

Bcrenger of Tours, Archdeacon of Angers, on the 
pretext that the traditional doctrine of the real pre- 
sence of Jesus Christ was misunderstood, undertook 
to explain it in a singular fashion. The true doc- 
trine was vindicated in the councils and justified in 
the solid reasoning of the learned writings of such 
men as Guimond of Aversa, Durand of Troarn, 
Hugh, Bishop of Langres, and especially their mas- 
ter, Lanfranc, who was an Italian by birth, and the 
founder of a celebrated school at the Abbey of Bee 
in Normandy (1055). From this school went out 
another Italian who succeeded Lanfranc in the ab- 
bey, and afterwards in the archiepiscopal see of Ca»n- 
terbury. This was St. Anselm, a doctor of the 



366 History of the Middle Ages, 

Church. The discussions on the jiugust Eucharist 
led him to the question, " Why a God-Man ?" and 
he wrote a work which bears that title {Cur Dens 
Homo), and still astonishes us by its dejith and 
olearness. Another day, while sounding his thoughts, 
he discovered his famous demonstration of the exis- 
tence of God. But the demonstrative value which he 
attributed to ideas met objections. Roscelin of Com- 
piegne allowed only a nominal bearing to the general 
concepts of our intellect, whereas Anselm, William of 
Champeaux, the head of the Paris school, and others 
maintained that the objects of our ideas are real. 
Thus the famous dispute between nominalism and 
realism, which had long before divided the philoso- 
phers of Greece, was rencAved in the philosopliical 
arena, where it lielped to quicken the mighty intel- 
lects of mediaeval times without preventing their ad- 
mirable agreement on revealed truths, wdiose harmo- 
nious accords were only the more clearly brought out 
by the divergence of sounds. At this time were laid 
the foundations of scholastic theology — tliat suj^er- 
natural pliilosophy which leads our reason to gaze 
upon revealed truths, to contemplate their beauty, 
and to recognize tlieir relation to truths of tlie 
natural order. 

Peter Abelard appeared in the lists. He was a 
native of Kantes, of an uncommon talent, possessing 
an extraordinary imagination, quick percejition, and 
ready faculty of retort that made his dialectics the 
wonder of the day, and drew crowds of hearers, who 
neglected the other professors of Paris. The scandal 
which attached to liim on account of the famous 
Heloise compelled liim to witlidraw, but his disciples 
followed him to Melun, Corbeil, and to the monastery 



Fourth Epoch, 367 

of the Paraclete. All this encouraged his vanity ; in 
anything but an humble spirit he undertook to ex- 
plain our greatest mysteries, and in treating of the 
Holy Trinity especially he fell into errors which St. 
Bernard, whose pitiless logic was more than a match 
for the scholar's dialectics, fully exposed. Abelard, 
after his defeat, retired to Cluny, Avhere he died in 
l^eace in the arms of Peter the Venerable (1142). The 
invincible St. Bernard likewise silenced Gilbert de la 
Porre, the Bishop of Poitiers, who had been led by 
nominalism into error regarding the same mystery of 
the Trinity. Scholastic theologians were forced to be 
upon their guard against altering dogma while trying 
to defend it. This difficulty was understood and 
fully met by Peter Lombard. He was an Italian of 
obscure birth, the friend of St. Bernard and the 
disciple of Abelard. His Four Boohs of Sentences 
{Liber Sententiarum) contain the whole substance of 
theology on a very simple and scientific plan. For 
more than three centuries that w^ork served as a text- 
book of theology. Eaised to the see of Paris 
(1159-1164) on account of his merit, the holy and 
learned '^ Master of the Sentences " was one day vis- 
ited by his mother, a poor peasant woman, who had 
come all the way from Italy to see her son, and had 
arrayed herself as she thought befitting the mother 
of so great a dignitary. ^' There is some mistake," 
said he ; ^^ my mother does not wear such fine 
clothes." 

St. Bernard and his school had preserved scholas- 
ticism from dangerous speculation. This austere 
religious, agreeable writer, and powerful orator was 
the last of the fathers of the Church. He repre- 
sented what is called Mystic Theology. According 



368 History of the Middle Ages. 

to him, a theologian should combine superior intellect 
with great mortification and profound humility ; 
then would he rise above his fellows as much as 
heaven is above the earth. The thirteenth century 
realized this ideal. 

The GoLDEi^ Age of Theology ; St. BoxAVEii- 
TURE (1221-1274), AND St. Thomas (1222-1273).— 
New heresies had sprung up ; proud professors, such 
as Amaury of Chartres and David of Dinan, in oi)pos- 
ing the dualism of the Albigenses, went astray in the 
treacherous mazes of jjantheism. The works of the 
Mussulman Averroes (1120-1198) and of the Jew 
Maimonides (1135-1204) were greatly in vogue south 
of the Pyrenees. These two scholars were both natives 
of Cordova, and were both physicians ; one to the 
Almohade sultan of Morocco, and the other to the 
Ayubite sultan of Cairo. Sceptics in their own re- 
ligion, they agreed in their hatred of Christianity, 
and in a purely rationalistic philosophy, which 
Maimonides drcAV from an allegorical interpretation 
of Genesis, and Averroes from the Avorks of Aristotle. 
Averroes wrote a commentary on Ai'istotle, which 
for a long while enjoyed great reputation. 

Then appeared the mendicant friars. From the 
very outset they saw the need of opposing science to 
science, of giving students pure and solid instruc- 
tion, and of circulating good books. Paris was the 
home of theological studies ; and thither repaired 
the English Franciscan Alexander of Hales, and the 
German Dominican Albertus Magnus, Count of 
Bollstaedt. They expounded Aristotle and the 
*' Master of the Sentences" as none had ever done 
before. But, great as was their merit, the lustre of 
their genius was dimmed, perhaps, by the light 



Fourth Epoch. 369^ 

which shone from their illustrious disciples, both 
Italians. St. Bonaventure was a Franciscan and 
born in Tuscany, while St. Thomas, of the noble 
family of the counts of Aquin, was a Dominican, born 
near Naples. Both uniting consummate holiness of 
life with brilliant genius, the profundity of the 
mystic with the sublimity of speculative theology, 
the Seraphic Doctor, Bonaventure, and the Angelic 
Doctor, Thomas Aquinas, have continued to our own 
day the masters of divine science. Closely united in 
esteem and friendship, they often met at the palace 
of the good King St. Louis ; they fasted and prayed 
to understand more clearly what they were after- 
wards to teach their hearers or transmit to posterity. 
Bonaventure perforce accepted the government of 
his order. Thomas was fortunate enough to escape 
the archbishopric of Naples. He made use of his 
laborious leisure to compose, among other works, 
a double synthesis, or 8um of Theology ; one {sum- 
■ma against the Gentiles) is an apology for Chris- 
tianity against all unbelievers who are brought 
to the pale of the Church ; the other (theological 
sunima) is an analytical exposition of the whole 
Christian edifice. This last is a work of colossal 
proportions and of charming simplicity. At first 
we see Cod, one in his nature and three in his per- 
son, creating the angels, the world, and man out of 
nothing ; then man obliged by free and meritorious 
actions to return to God ; at last God himself, made 
man, aids man to work out his own salvation. 
'^ Thou hast written well of me," said our Lord one 
day to Thomas. ' ' What reward wouldst thou have ? " 
'^None other than thyself, Lord," replied the 
saint. He was on his way to the (Ecumenical Council 



370 History of the Middle Ages. 

of Lyons, wliere ho died in the presence of St. Bona- 
ventiire. At his canonization by Poj^e Jolm XXII. 
no other miracles were required to be jn-oved than 
the lucid solutions which the Angelic Doctor had 
given of questions hitherto perplexing. 

The Order of St. Dominic also offers at this epoch 
Vincent of Beauvais, who composed the Great Mir- 
ror, a voluminous encyclopaedia of the natural, doc- 
trinal, moral, and historical sciences of his time. 
The Order of St. Francis produced Roger Bacon, tlie 
linguist, mathematician, and most astonishing natu- 
ral philosoi)lier of his century, and Duns Scotus, a 
theologian whom the entire Franciscan school has 
gloried in following. Thus through the instrumen- 
tality of the mendicants science unmasked, combat- 
ted, and overcame all errors. 

Civil aj^d Can-o:s' Law ; Ui^"iveksities. — In the 
opening years of the twelfth century Irnerius, an 
erudite Bolognese, exhumed the Pandects, the Insti- 
tutes, and the Code of Justinian from the dust where 
they had long lain. He at once began to teach Ro- 
man or civil law publicly at Bologna. Ilis commen- 
tary is known as Glossm. At first it was certainly 
not clear what utility there could be in an ancient 
species of legislation but little fitted to the wants of 
feudal society. But the German emperors, particu- 
larly Henry Y. and Frederick Barbarossa, dreamed of 
universal monarchy, and were glad of tlie opportunity 
of reviving the absolutist principles of Caesarian law. 
They encouraged its professors, for they knew those 
professors would in return be ready to support their 
patron's despotic pretensions. Besides the old Ro- 
man law Bologna had learned professors who taught 
the sacred canons, which were in full force in Chris- 



Fourth Epoch. 371 

tian society. To further this study Gratian, a Bene- 
dictine monk, compiled the Decretal, in which were 
methodically arranged and classified the decisions of 
popes, councils, and fathers of the Church (1152). 
Gratian's Decretal is greatly esteemed by those 
learned in canon law. It was desirable, however, 
that the sovereign pontiff should himself publish a 
code in his own name ; this was done by Gregory 
IX. in 1231. By his direction the learned Spanish 
Dominican, St. Eaymond of Peiiafort, made a col- 
lection in five volumes of all the various decisions of 
the popes down to that time ; the pope, who was 
himself a great canonist, sanctioned the work, which 
is known as the Decretals of Gregory IX. From that 
epoch canon law and civil law were taught in the 
universities, and the highest ambition of students 
was to become doctors of both laws. 

The most celebrated universities date from this 
ejioch ; the episcopal and abbatial schools could no 
longer contain the great numbers of students eager 
for knowledge and for the degrees which were the 
passports to dignities, given to none but the deserv- 
ing. The instruction generally bore on the arts, 
under which were grouped literature, law, medi- 
cine, and theology. At the same time certain uni- 
versities were distinguished for special faculties — as 
Bologna, Padua, and Toulouse for law ; Salerno and 
Montpellier for medicine ; Paris for theology. The 
oldest and most celebrated was the University of 
Pans. In Germany great universities arose which, 
soon disputed the honors with the older foundations ; 
amongst them Heidelberg in Baden, Vienna, and 
the University of Ingolstadt in Bavaria, in our own 
days transferred to Munich. Oxford and Cambridge 



372 History of the Middle Ages. 

were opened in England, Salamancii in Spain, and 
Coimbra in Portugal. These and many otliers were 
founded in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries 
under the patronage of the popes, for no university 
could be constituted without a papal bull. 

National Literature. — The people of the uni- 
versities, as was proper, spoke a common language, 
the Latin, which tliey were able to bend to all the 
wants of expression. So that the national idioms 
which appeared mostly at this epoch w^ere not formed 
by the universities ; the vernacular tongues found 
their first literary expression in the chronicles, laws, 
war-songs, the long i)oetical compositions destined to 
enliven the popular festivals or to while away the 
tedious hours of watch and ward in the baronial 
castles. 

The Russian chronicle of the monk Nestor, the 
Scandinavian eddas and sagas, the Niebelungenlied 
and the poetry of the German Minnesingers, the 
Castilian Romance of the Cid, and tlie various pro- 
ductions of the French troubadours belong to the 
twelfth or thirteenth centuries. Two languages pre- 
vailed in France. In the south, and especially in 
Provence, the langue cVoc was for a time the chosen 
languao-e of the minstrels or troubadours, and the 
best specimens are found in the poetry of Sordello, 
Bertrand de Born, and Vidal ; but after the twelfth 
century it ceased to exist as a written language, and 
was entirely displaced by its rival, originating in the 
north of France, known as the Icmgite cTo'd, the 
foundation of the modern French tongue. The ear- 
liest works of the langue cl'oil were the popular ser- 
mons of St. Bernard, the great epic compositions of 
the Anglo-Norman Robert Wace, and the songs and 



Fourth Epoch. 373 

lyrics of Chrestien of Troyes, Alexandre cle Bernay, 
Huon de Villeneuve, and others. 

The epic poetry of this period, called gestes, can 
generally be classed under two heroic cycles — that of 
Charlemagne and that of the Round Table. From 
the imagination of the earlier chroniclers a fabulous 
Charlemagne had been created. Surrounded by his 
twelve peers, or paladins, the great emperor braved a 
thousand dangers, vanquished his enemies, and libe- 
rated Jerusalem. To this cycle belong the Song of 
Eoland, The Four Sons of Aymon, Ogier the 
Dane, and many others. The Anglo-Normans found 
more delight in the cycle of the Eound Table, as its 
stories related principally to ancient Britain, the 
land of their conquest. Among these stories are 
The Quest, or Search, for the Holy Graal, The 
Enchantments of Merlin, The Adventures of Laun- 
celot, and others, which have been ^popularized in 
our own day by Tennyson. The Romance of Brutus, 
which has fifteen thousand verses, is, as it were, 
the preface, and the Romance of Rou, or Rollo, 
which is but little shorter, may be looked upon as 
the epilogue or sequel, of the epic romances of the 
Round Table. Both were composed in the twelfth, 
century by Robert Wace, canon of Bayeux. 

At this epoch, too, dramas were composed for re- 
presentation in the churches. As their subject was 
always religious, they were known as mysteries, such 
as the mystery of the Nativity, of the Kings, of 
the Passion. This last was the favorite. One of 
these mystery-plays still in existence is called The 
Parable of the Virgins. In it our Saviour speaks 
Latin ; the wise virgins, French ; and the foolish 
virgins, Proven9al. 



374 History of the Middle Ages. 

Christian Art and Gothic Churches. — The 
great Dante, in his immortal epic, the Divine 
Comedy, has given us the whole theology of the 
Middle Ages. But other artists had preceded the 
Christian Homer. Beautiful churches in the Ro- 
mano-Byzantine style, and magnificent cathedrals in 
the Gothic, show the rise of an entirely new system 
of architecture. The whole Christian theology 
breathes in those august fanes whose foundations 
are buried deep in the soil, while the cross on their 
spires seems to reach heaven itself. In the eleventh 
and twelfth centuries the classic styles of architec- 
ture, somewhat modified, as in the Roman basilicas 
and St. Sophia at Constantinople, were still the only 
ones recognized by the architects. The lines were 
extended, proportions enlarged, cupolas more lofty, 
and as a result we see the great churches of Cluny, 
of Canterbury, Toulouse, St. Stephen of Caen, St. 
Remi of Rheims. The semi-circular arch was still 
preserved, but highly ornamented. Towards the 
end of the twelfth century, while retaining the 
dimensions of the sacred edifice, the pointed was 
substituted for the semi-circular arch ; the fayade, 
the windows, the little columns, the ceilings them- 
selves, all seem as if drawn towards heaven, like the 
prayers and the chants of the faithful. The wonder- 
ful masterpieces of Amiens, Salisbury, York, and 
AVestminster Abbey, the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, 
the minsters of Strassburg and of Freyburg, the 
church of St. Stephen at Vienna, and the cathedrals 
of Magdeburg and Cologne, as well as those of Bur- 
gos and Toledo in Spain, are all calculated to pro- 
mote the religious sentiment by their serious beauty. 
The uniform de^jfree of excellence which these Gothic 



Fourth Epoch. 375 

edifices attained at the same time in different parts 
of Europe is explained by tlie fact that many of the 
same men were employed in the construction of all. 
Guilds of stone-masons were formed under the sanc- 
tion of the Church. They were called Freemasons, 
and for a long while had the exclusive right to work 
in the construction of ecclesiastical and public edi- 
fices. The finest specimens of Gothic architecture 
date from the thirteenth century. 

Of the other arts, those were especially cultivated 
which contributed to the embellishment of churches 
— casting in bronze, for instance, and painting on 
glass, which was invented in the eleventh century, 
and had now attained great perfection. Sculpture 
and painting became independent arts in the thir- 
teenth century. From the study of classic models 
Niccolo da Pisa, in the beginning of that century, 
revived sculpture, while about the same time 
Oimabue, a Florentine, taught by Greeks, caused 
painting to flourish once more. 



FIFTH EPOCH (1270-1453). 

FROM THE DEATH OF ST. LOUIS TO TEE 
TAKING OF CONS TAM'tlNOFLE— 183 YEARS. 

Religious and political anarchy characterizes the last epoch of 
the ^Middle Ages. Pontifical authority is no longer able to 
exercise its beneficent influence over the nations of Christen- 
dom. Hence result disorders and scandals in the Church, 
a hundred years' war between France and England, the de- 
cline of the German Empire, the internecine struggles in 
Italy and between the kingdoms of Spain, and, finally, the 
inability of the Slavs and Greeks to resist the Ottoman Turks, 
who seize Constantinople. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 

The Great Schism of the West, brought about by the violence 
of Philip the Fair and the transfer of the Holy See to Avig- 
non, comprises a period of seventy-one years (1378-1449), in 
which the Great Schism, properly so called (1378-1417). mu>t 
be distinguished from the Schism of Ten Vcars (1439-1449). 

Sec. 1. Struggle of Boniface VIII. and Philip the 

Fair; the Pojies at Avignon (1305-1378). 

The STRrCxGLE between Bontface VTTT. axd 
THE King of France (1200).— The triumph of the 
Papacy was seemingly complete when, after worsting 
Frederick IT. in its long conflict with him, the Second 
Council of Lyons — fourteenth oecumenical — saw the 
reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches (1274). 
St. Gregory X., a sovereign pontiff whose power was 
adorned by the splendor of his virtues, had brought 



Fifth Epoch. 377 

about this desirable reconciliation. He preached a 
new Crusade against the infidels of the East, but his 
premature death and the short pontificates of his 
successors, to the number of eight ih eighteen years, 
endangered the authority of the Holy See. The 
Greeks had again broken off into schism, and the 
Ohristians'had lost their last foothold in the Holy 
Land before the accession of Boniface VIII. to the 
pontifical throne (1294). But sadder than this was 
the anarchy that reigned in Europe, which, no longer 
united in the warm faith of the Crusades, resounded 
with the strife of arms between princes contending 
for selfish, or at least private, interests. The king of 
Fi'unce, Philip the Fair, not only invaded the Eng- 
lish territories on the Continent, but he set his 
greed on Flanders, and as part of his plan enticed 
Count Guy of Dampierre to Paris, and there kept 
him in close captivity. To obtain the means to 
further his projects of conquest the ambitious mon- 
arch loaded his subjects with taxes and openly vio- 
lated the immunities of the Church. Boniface VIII. 
interposed the authority of the Holy See. Boniface 
had great genius, and to his extensive knowledge 
joined inflexibility of character. His policy, like 
that of his predecessors for two centuries, was to 
oppose an united Europe to the aggressions of the 
Mohammedans. In his message to Philip the Fair 
the sovereign pontiff exhorted him to seek recon- 
ciliation with the king of England and to set the 
count of Flanders at liberty. At this time there 
appeared the bull Clericis laicos, which, under pen- 
alty of excommunication, forbade the clergy to pay, 
and the laity to require them to pay, any subsidy 
without the permission of the Holy See (1296). 



378 History of the Middle Ages. 

This bull, couched in general terms, api^lied parti- 
cularly to the king of England, who was more blame- 
worthy in this matter than the king of France. 
But Philip the Fair could not brook the legitimate 
intervention of the sovereign pontiff. He was of a 
proud and haughty disposition, and was surrounded 
by lawyers who flattered his natural leaning to irre- 
sponsible despotism. He defended his rights against 
Boniface, and declared that God alone was the judge of 
his acts. He enforced this declaration by forbidding 
any gold or silver money to be taken out of the realm 
without his express permission. This was an indi- 
rect confiscation of the dues hitherto paid the Holy 
See. All relations with the court of Rome were at 
once suspended. Philip was a powerful monarch, 
for he was not only king of France and Navarre, but 
he held the sovereigns of Spain and the princes of 
Naples and Hungary in his dependency. Against 
such an adversary the pope could expect no support 
from Germany, where the emperor was defending 
his throne from a rival, nor from Italy, torn by dis- 
sensions of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. And, in fact, 
the Ghibelines were the declared enemies of the Holy 
See. Through the influence of the Colonna family, 
who had just broken out in revolt, they held Rome 
at their mercy. To avoid the storm more tact than 
firmness was required by the head of the Church, 
who certainly used great condescension. Boniface, 
after modifying the import of the bull Clericis laicos, 
allowed Philip the Fair to levy subsidies on the 
.French clergy, and succeeded in reconciling him 
with the king of England by acting the part of me- 
diator, not as a sovereign pontiff but as a private 
individual ; he even consented, for the sake of peace. 



Fifth Epoch, 379 

to pass over in silence the just grievances of the 
count of Flanders ; and, finally, he solemnly canon- 
ized King Louis IX., the grandfather of Philip the 
Fair, who then resumed friendly relations with the 
Holy See. The pope, victorious over the Colonnas, 
published the first secular jubilee for the year 1300. 
Pilgrims flocked to Eome from all nations ; so great 
were their numbers that a wide breach was opened 
in the walls of the city to aft'ord them entrance. 

New Attacks of Philip the Faie on Boniface 
Vni. (1301-1303).— Philip, not satisfied with giv- 
ing asylum to the Colonnas who had been banished 
from Eome, made new exactions, infringed the liber- 
ties of the Church, and even seized upon the money 
left by a cardinal for the maintenance of needy stu- 
dents. Boniface desired to avoid a second rupture. 
His legate, Bernard de Saisset, Bishop of Pamiers, 
was directed to expostulate with the shuffling mo- 
narch. But Philip, far from heeding his words, 
dragged the legate of the Holy See before an incom- 
petent tribunal, which threatened him with death 
and sentenced him to prison. The king sent the 
chancellor of France to Eome with a command to the 
pope to degrade the bishop of Pamiers and abandon 
him to the king's justice, '^ which in that case might, 
be remitted as a sacrifice pleasing to God." Boni- 
face, who was the legate's lawful judge, demanded 
his release. The chancellor's threatening tone led 
the pope to convoke a council for the next year. At 
the same time he published the bull Ausculta fill, 
which represents the sovereign pontiff as the chief 
and arbiter among Christian princes. The ill-ad^ 
vised Philip maintained that this bull assailed the 
independence of his crown, and, to prove it, circulated 



^80 History of the Middle Ages. 

a spurious copy, in which the pope was made to 
claim France as a fief of the Holy See. This out- 
rage was followed by another : in presence of a numer- 
ous assembly Philip threw the bull AusciiUafili into 
the flames, and the act was proclaimed by sound of 
trumpet. The States-General, assembled for the first 
time in the church of JSotre Dame at Paris, were 
solicited by the chancellor to lend their support in 
maintaining what he called '' the ancient liberties of 
the nation " (1302). The nobility and the tiers-etats, 
or commons, gained over beforehand, promised what 
was asked ; their letters to the cardinals even denied 
Boniface the title of pope. The clergy, though less 
servile, were yet weak enough to yield to the threat 
of being held guilty of treason. In the council of 
Rome, Boniface VIII. with just indignation declared 
that he had not dreamed of encroaching upon the 
temporal power of the king of France, but only of 
maintaining his right, like his predecessors, to judge 
all the actions of princes, as of the rest of the faithful, 
in regard to sin. This was the substance of the cele- 
brated bull Unam sanctam, which represented the 
two powers as two sw^ords : one spiritual, confided to 
the Church ; the other temporal, and placed in the 
hands of Christian princes (1302). 

In spite of Philip's formal prohibition thirty-nine 
French bishops attended the Council of Pome. The 
king of France seized the revenues of their dioceses 
and adopted extreme measures against the sovereign 
pontiff. A second assembly of the States-General 
was convoked at the Louvre' (1303). This assembly 
declared Boniface VIII. an usurper, and a heretic 
guilty of intercourse with the devil and of all the in- 
famies that the blackest hatred could imaofine. The 



Fifth Epoch, 381 

king of France was entreated, as defender of the 
faith, to call a general council for the election of a 
legitimate pope. Philip easily consented to what he 
himself had suggested. His summons to the future 
council, being published throughout France, was re- 
sponded to by many who had been deceived or 
intimidated. 

Outrage at Aiq^AGiN^i (September 7, 1303). — Wil- 
liam de Nogaret, one of the most hostile legists to the 
Holy See, and whose grandfather had been burned 
alive as an -Albigensian heretic, was sent to notify 
Boniface of the French king's summons. Nogaret 
set out for Italy with full powers and a large sum of 
money. His barefaced hypocrisy attracted a few 
hundred mercenary bandits. As though a zealous 
defender of the Holy See, he displayed the gonfalon 
of St. Peter side by side with the banner of France, 
and marched upon Anagni. This was the native j^lace 
of Boniface VIII., who had withdrawn there and had 
no defenders but his fellow-citizens. Treachery 
opened the gates of Anagni to his enemies, who 
rushed to his palace with shouts of ^^ Long live the 
king of France ! Death to Pope Boniface !" 

The august old man of eighty-six, unterrified by 
the aj)proach of his persecutors, commanded the 
doors of his palace to be thrown open, that he might 
suffer martyrdom for the Church of God. Attended 
only by two cardinals, who alone remained faithful 
to him amid danger, he sat on his throne, vested 
with the pontifical ornaments, the tiara on his head, 
and holding- in one hand the cross, and the keys of St. 
Peter in the other. The mercenary soldiers were 
struck with awe by the spectacle. When Nogaret 
threatened to take him to Lyons, fettered like a cri- 



382 History of the Middle Ages, 

minal, there to be tried by the pretended council, the 
pope replied : *^Here is my head; I long to die for 
the faith of Jesus Christ and his Church." The 
brutal Sciarra Colonna overwhelmed him with in- 
sults, and it is said by some that he even struck the 
pope in the face with his iron gauntlet. The firm- 
ness of the vicar of Jesus Christ "Was unshaken by 
three days of rigorous captivity. At last the citizens 
gave way to their indignation, drove out the trooj^s 
of Nogaret, and trampled the banner of France in 
the mud. The venerable pontiff was no sooner re- 
stored to liberty than he generously granted a j^ar- 
don to the prisoners and to all who had betrayed 
him. A joyful welcome was given him on his re- 
turn to Rome ; but the Roman lords disputed the 
honor of keeping the pope in their power, under 
pretext of protecting him. Boniface YIII. at last 
succumbed to the anguish and torments of continued 
persecution (October, 1303).* 

Clement V. (1305-1314) ; Transfer of the 
Holy See to Avignon (1309) and the Council 
OF Yienne (1311-1312). — Evil consequencds resulted 
to the Church from the outrage of Anagni. Bene- 
dict XI. was the successor of Boniface VIII. To be 
independent he left Rome, and deemed it prudent to 
revoke the censures pronounced against Philip the 



* The horror caused among the Italians by the outrage of Anagni was well 
expressed by the poiet Dante Alighieri : "I behold him; he enters Anagni 
with the fleur-de-lis. I behold Christ captive in his vicar ; I see him mocked 
a second time ; he is again drenched Avith gall and vinegar ; he is put to death 
between thieves." The Divine Comedy of Dante, begim in ]293 and finished 
in 1320, is regarded as one of the finest of all poems. Its influence, the works 
of the lyric poet Petrarch, the discovery of several masterpieces of ancient 
art, the increased intercourse with the Greeks, and the enlightened patron- 
age of the popes and princes, brought about the literary movement of the 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries known as the Renaissance. 



Fifth Epoch, 383 

Pair. But after solemnly excommunicating Kogaret 
and his accomj^lices the virtuous pontiff died sud- 
denly, some say of poison, at Perugia (1304). 

At the end of ten months the conclave elected a 
Frenchman named Bertrand de Got, who was arch- 
bishop of Bordeaux. He was crowned at Lyons 
under the name of Clement V. As Rome and the 
surrounding countries were a prey to constant civil 
war, the new pope resolved to fix his residence at 
Avignon. But by this act the papal authority lost 
much of its prestige. It became easy to charge that 
the Holy See was no longer independent, since it 
was established in the states of a foreign prince. 

There is no doubt that the kings of France too 
often interfered with the action of the popes of 
Avignon. Urged by an undying hatred of Boniface 
VIIL, Philip pressed Clement to declare him a 
heretic, to erase his name from the catalogue of 
popes, to burn his body and scatter his ashes to the 
wind. Clement, while determined not to submit to 
that dishonor, convoked the Fifteenth (Ecumenical 
Council at Vienne (1311). Boniface YIII. was de- 
clared a legitimate and orthodox pope. Philip the 
Fair, once more absolved, insisted upon finishing 
the trial of the Templars. In 1307 he had caused 
the arrest on the same day of all the knights of that 
order in his kingdom. A great" number of knights, 
when examined by the pope himself or by his com- 
missaries, made most astounding disclosures. The 
testimony of six hundred Templars in Italy, France, 
Germany, Spain, and England showed that the order 
had become enormously rich, and was infected with 
profligacy, apostasy, impiety, and other abominable 
crimes. The sovereign pontiff, after mature exami- 



384 History of the Middle Ages, 

nation, being convinced that this order, far from 
being now of any utility, was ratlier an object of 
scandal to the Church, suppressed it in the Council 
of Vienne (1312). While the i)apal conimisijaries 
were deliberating on the case of the grand master, 
Jacques Molay, who was in the royal custody, the 
king, without waiting for sentence, had him burnt 
alive on a small island of the Seine at Paris (1314). 
At the same time that it is just to admit the wisdom 
of Clement V. in these memorable proceedings, 
Philip's conduct cannot be defended. Philip per- 
secuted the Templars with so stubborn a cruelty 
that, considering his former career, it can hardly 
be believed that he brought about the suppression 
of the Templars for anything but selfish reasons. 
A pontifical bull transferred their possessions to 
the Knights Hospitalers, but the king kept the 
greater part of what he had confiscated. 

Nicholas Rienzi ; the Good State (1347). — The 
popes of Avignon, who were anxious for a new cru- 
sade against the encroaching Mohammedans in the 
East and for a reconciliation of the Greek Church, 
vainly strove to bring about peace in the West, and 
particularly in Italy. But they were continually 
liarassed by the emperors of Germany, who foment- 
ed the disturbances of the Ghibelines in the penin- 
sula. Pope John XXII. began a struggle with Louis 
of Bavaria and maintained it with energy (1316- 
1334). Benedict XII. (1334-1341) continued it with 
moderation. It was closed by the more fortunate 
Clement VI. (1341-1352), who humbled the schisma- 
tical emperor, but was startled by the news of an- 
other outbreak in Rome. The capital of Christen- 
dom, deserted by the sovereign pontiffs, had passed 



Fifth Epoch, 385 

under the yoke of the tyrannical nobles. The sight 
of the public woes stirred the indignation of a young 
Koman named Nicholas Kienzi, who was the son of a 
tavern-keeper. He had received a good education, 
and had learned to admire the ancient institutions of 
Rome, which his warm imagination made him think 
would raise his country to its former splendor. 
Shortly before a senator had placed the laurel crown 
upon the^ head of the poet Petrarch at the Capitol 
(1314). The unwonted splendor of that long-disused. 
ceremony left a deep impression. Rienzi seized 
the opportunity to contrast the present misery of the. 
Romans with the glory of their ancestors. He com- 
bined a noble bearing with a ready, irresistible elo- 
quence, so that he easily induced the down-trodden 
Romans to accomjDany him to the Capitol, where they 
proclaimed the republic of the '^ Good State " (1347)» 
At the height of this enthusiasm Rienzi was de- 
clared *^ Tribune and Liberator of Rome." His rule 
at first realized the fairest hopes. The tribune re- 
vived peace and concord among the citizens ; he 
compelled the lords to remain in their castles, and 
solicited the cities of Italy to join the Romans in re- 
establishing the republic. From his retreat of Yau- 
cluse the illustrious Petrarch in his verses sounded 
the praise of the new liberator as a man greater than 
Camillus or the Scijiios. Less popularity would 
have been enough to turn the demagogue's head. 
He not only had himself dubbed a knight in the ba- 
silica of St. John Lateran, but he encircled his 
brow with six crowns and summoned the emperor 
to appear before his tribunal. Cleaving the air with 
his sword in three different directions before the 
assembled multitude, he cried out at every stroke : 



386 History of the Middle Ages. 

''This is mine!" To maintain his insane preten- 
sions he displayed scandalous luxury, and added to 
his titles those of Champion of Italy and of Lover of 
the Universe. His tyranny and exactions at last 
ruined him with the people. Excommunicated by 
the pope and besieged by the Eoman lords, Kienzi 
vainly rang the alarm from the belfry of the CaiDitol ; 
no one heeded his summons, and he sorrowfully gave 
up a power which, in less than seven months, had re- 
duced Rome to a condition even worse than before. 

Ueban V. AKD Gregory XI. at Eome. — The 
capital of Christendom enjoyed neither peace nor 
greatness during the absence of the sovereign pon- 
tiffs. To Rienzi's ill-ordered attempt at a republic 
succeeded the tyrannical rule of the lords. The 
most terrible pestilence which had ever ravaged 
Europe, the black plague, aggravated the evils of 
anarchy. Pope Innocent VI. (1352-1362), desiring 
to re-establish the pontifical authority in the States 
of the Church, sent thither Cardinal Albornoz in the 
capacity of legate. Nicholas Rienzi should have 
aided this pacific mission. The ambitious tribune, 
after having been delivered up by the emperor to the 
sovereign pontiff, who set him at liberty, again 
ascended the Capitol in triumph. The people, how- 
ever, whom he had again led captive by his eloquence, 
soon wearied of his tyranny and pitilessly slew him 
(1354). Cardinal Albornoz, rid of his dangerous 
auxiliary, displayed such courage and ability that by 
the end of a few years he had recovered all the terri- 
tories of the Church. The hour seemed at hand for 
the Papacy to return to its proper dwelling-i^lace. 
In vain did interested counsellors seek to fix it in 
Prance. Pope Urban Y. (1362-1370), not heeding 



Fifth Epoch, 387 

the threats of the king of France or the murmurs of 
the cardinals, embarked for Italy. His entrance into 
Eome was a real triumph (1367). Among the royal 
visitors were the emperors of Germany and the em- 
peror of the East. John Palaeologus even made a 
solemn abjuration of tlie Greek schism. Urban V., 
by his residence in Rome, had acquired great in- 
fluence throughout Christendom, when he yielded to 
the desire of returning to France. St. Bridget of 
Sweden had foretold that as soon as he should re- 
enter Avignon he would die of a distressing malady, 
and the event verified the prediction. 

The Eomans were indignant at the election of 
Gregory XI. as successor of Urban. He was the 
third Frenchman who had worn the tiara in thirty 
years. They threatened to choose a pope of their 
own to put an end to what they called the " Baby- 
lonian Captivity." The exhortations of St. Ca- 
therine of Sienna and the apprehension of schism 
urged Gregory to accomplish his vow of quitting 
Avignon for ever. He set out for the Eternal City, 
despite the entreaties of relatives, the rei3resenta- 
tions of King Charles Y., and the expectation of 
perils awaiting him in Italy. The people of Rome 
received him with shouts of joy (1377), but most' of 
the neighboring cities, upon hearing the watchword 
'^ liberty " sounded by the Florentines, unfurled the 
standard of revolt. Cardinal Robert of Geneva was 
sent to bring them into subjection, but he had only 
bands of French mercenaries who were more eager 
to gather plunder than to restore order. This an- 
archy afflicted Gregory, who had also to suffer the 
insolence of the Roman lords and the attacks of the 
Endish heretic Wickliffe. What still more hastened 



388 History of the Middle Ages. 

tlie death (1378) of the pope was the presentiment of 
the schism so soon to desolate all Christendom. 



Sec. 2. The Great Schism (1378-1417) ; Cotcncils of 
Pisa (1409) and Constance (1414-1418) ; the Ten 
Years' 8chism (1439-1449) ; Councils of Basle 
(1431-1439) and Florence (1438-1442). 

Double Election of Uebak YI. axd or Clem- 
ent VII. (1378). — The cardinals, conformably to the 
dying wish of Gregory XI., at once met in conclave 
to elect his successor by plurality of votes. Divided 
into three parties, they could come to no agreement. 
The Limousins, who were in the majority, resolved to 
elect a pope of their own province ; but the others 
(French and Italians) agreed that the world was 
weary of Limousin popes. In the meantime the 
Romans, who feared a plot among the cardinals to 
transfer the Holy See again to Avignon, collected 
around the Vatican, shouting : *' Give us a Roman 
pope !" -A cardinal, frightened by the tumult, ad- 
vised that a 25i*iest should be ari-ayed in pontifical 
robes and presented to the people as the new pope, 
so that by this stratagem the cardinals might retire 
to a place of safety and there proceed with the elec- 
tion. The conclave rejected this proposal as un- 
worthy. It was, therefore, decided to proceed at 
once to the election, and nearly all the votes were 
given for Bartholomew Prignano, the Archbishop of 
Bari, who was not a member of the Sacred College 
(1378). Fearing that tlie election of a Neapolitan 
would excite the anger of the people, it was resolved 
to postpone the proclamation till the next day. 

However, the impatient multitude broke in the 



Fifth Epoch, 389 

doors of the palace and invaded tlie conclave. The 
panic-stricken cardinals had barely time to escape 
into the castle of Sant' Angelo or the neighboring 
fields. Kext day, seeing calm restored by tlie news 
of the recent election, they reassembled to proclaim 
it and to offer their homage to the j^ope, who took 
the name of Urban YI. Rome was full of rejoicing. 
Easter was celebrated with the utmost solemnity by 
the new poj^e, surrounded by the seventeen cardinals 
then present in Italy ; the six others at Avignon 
hastened to send in their adhesion and homage. 
The accession of Urban YI. was made known to all 
the princes and prelates of the Catholic world, and 
was everywhere hailed with joy, while for more than 
three months no one expressed a doubt that the 
Church had in her present head a legitimate suc- 
cessor of St. Peter. 

Urban YI. created discontent by his direct way of 
attempting reforms. His incessant but well-deserved 
reproaches to the cardinals were nearly always ex- 
pressed in an abrupt and imperious tone, more cal- 
culated to irritate the delinquents tlian to correct 
them. The cardinals, to escape his censures, sought 
refuge in Anagni, taking with them the pontifical 
tiara. There, screened by the personal enemies of 
Urban, they declared his election null and the Holy 
See A^acant. In vain Urban proposed to submit his 
claims to the decision of a general council. Meeting 
in conclave, they almost unanimously nominated 
Cardinal Robert of Geneva, who took the name of 
Clement YII. (1378). Yet this same cardinal had, 
with his own hand, written to several princes to 
notify them of the election of Urban YI. as valid 
^nd conformable to the sacred canons. Urban YI., 



390 History op the Middle Ages. 

without further doliiy, excommunicated tlie anti- 
pope and all his adherents. Clement, having lost his 
troops, and being threatened with death by the 
Keapolitans, sailed for France (1370). Ilis intention 
was to fix his residence at Avignon, where he was 
acknowledged as legitimate successor of the popes, 
who had dwelt there for seventy years. 

Anarchy in" Christendom. — France soon de- 
clared for Clement VII., as did Scotland, Spain, 
Savoy, Naples, and the kingdom of Cyprus. The 
obedience of Urban VI. was more extensive, com- 
prising England, Portugal, the Netherlands, nearly 
all Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and the Scan- 
dinavian states. Catholic Europe, thus divided be- 
tween two rival obediences, became the theatre of 
scandals and disorders hitherto unknown. The 
world saw two pontiffs, one at Rome and the other 
at Avignon, not only hurling the thunderbolts of the 
Church at one another, but levying troojis, and in a 
war against Christians granting the same indul- 
gences as in the Crusades against the infidels. To 
ruin Urban VI. Clement set Italy on fire, and sent 
Louis of Anjou there to uphold Queen Joanna I. and 
to conquer the States of the Church. On the other 
hand, Urban called upon Charles of Duras, who de- 
throned his cousin, the queen of Naples, and suffo- 
cated her between two mattresses. There was 
neither peace nor truce between the two parties, 
known as Urbanists and Clementines. In the same 
country, nay, often in the same city, implacable en- 
mities hurried men on to the most criminal excesses. 
*^ Clerics were arrested by sea and by land," says a 
contemporary, '^ ill-treated, and put to death by 
drowning, burning, or by some other violent means." 



Fifth Epoch. 391 

So much disorder would have destroyed any other 
institution than the Catholic Church. But the 
Spouse of Jesus Christ has received immortal life 
and fecundity, and through all her trials she pre- 
served the effective means of leading the faithful to 
salvation, and amid even frightful confusion some of 
her children displayed heroic virtues. Among the 
saints who edified the world by the splendor of their 
lives we may cite SS. Vincent Ferrer and Colette, 
'and Blessed Peter of Luxembourg, under the obe- 
dience of Avignon ; and SS. Catherine of Sienna and 
Catherine of Sweden, Blessed Alfonso of Aragon, and 
St. Antoninus, Bishop of Florence, under the obe- 
dience of Rome. St. Antoninus gave a just and con- 
soling rule for the faithful during the disastrous 
schism: '* Although it is necessarry to believe that 
there is, and can be, but one visible head of the 
Church, it is not necessary to believe that this or 
that rival claimant is the legitimate pope. All that 
is necessary to be believed is that the true and 
lawful pope is he who has been canonically elected, 
and an ordinary Christian is not obliged to discover 
which election has been canonical. He may safely 
follow the opinion and the conduct of his pastor." 

Futile Efforts to heal the Schism ; Election" 
OF Alexan"Der V. (1409). — The University of Paris, 
whose influence was at that time powerful in Europe, 
sought means to heal a schism so hurtful to Chris- 
tendom. What rendered this task most difficult was 
the obstinate persistence of the two popes. Clement 
strove to support his claims by levying heavy contri- 
butions on the Church of France; Urban VI., be- 
trayed by several cardinals and attacked by his 
former ally, Charles of Duras, was occupied in main- 



392 History of the Middle Ages. 

taining his power in Central Italy. Boniface IX., 
who succeeded him in 1389, evinced more zeal for 
the interests of the Church. In consequence of liis 
advances to the king of France the University of 
Paris proposed three means of restoring unity. The 
first was by mutual cession, whereby the two claim- 
ants were to abdicate their dignity and leave matters 
to a new election. Should they refuse they were to 
be solicited to chose umpires to decide which of the 
two was the true pope ; this was termed the way of 
compromise or arbitration. Finally, if both claim- 
ants refused any amicable adjustment, recourse was 
to be had to the third means — the convocation of a 
general council to pronounce on their respective 
claims or name a new pope. Clement VII. , called on 
to accept one of these three means, was so agitated 
that he soon after died (1394). 

The death of Clement would have healed the 
schism had not the cardinals of his obedience has- 
tened to give him a successor in the person of Peter 
de Luna, of Aragon. This cardinal was already fa- 
mous for his ability and firmness. He had declared 
in conclave that he could as cheerfully resign the 
pontifical dignity as lay aside the cope in which he 
was robed. Once elected Benedict XIII. , despite the 
urgent solicitations of cardinals, the threats of the 
king of France, and the assaults of a numerous army 
that besieged him in Avignon, he refused to accept 
the way of mutual cession. Innocent VII., the suc- 
cessor of Boniface IX. , was equally obstinate. Gregory 
XII., having succeeded him in 1406, was desirous of 
restoring peace to the Church ; but he could come to 
no understanding with Benedict XIII. Then the 
cardinals of both obediences, supported by the prin- 



Fifth Epoch, 393 

cipal Catholic countries, agreed to convoke a council 
at Pisa. About a hundred bishops attended in per- 
son, and nearly two hundred by proxy. Gregory 
XII. and Benedict XIII. refused to appear. Nev.er- 
theless the council, declaring itself oecumenical, pro- 
nounced the deposition of the two popes and the 
vacancy of the Holy See (1409). The twenty-two 
cardinals present, meeting in conclave, elected Alex- 
ander V. as pope. Their motive was good, but the 
act was irregular. Instead of two there were now 
three claimants of the Papacy, as well as three em- 
23erors in the empire. 

ExD OF THE Great Schism ; Elections" of Mar- 
Tix V. (1417). — The Emperor Sigismund, being now 
sole master of the empire, desired to restore unity in 
the Church. At the solicitation of this wise monarch 
Pope John XXIII., who had succeeded Alexander V. in 
1410, convoked a general council at Constance (1414). 
The emperor, more than 150 prelates, about 1,600 
princes and lords of every rank, and a host of the 
faithful attended. On the motion of Peter d'Ailly, 
Cardinal Bishop of Cambrai, and of John Gerson, 
Chancellor of the University of Paris,* the assembly 
declared itself independent of the Council of Pisa, 
and granted the right of suffrage to simple ecclesias- 
tics, doctors, princes, and their representatives, which 
swelled the number of votes to 18,000. It was re- 
solved that the vote should be taken collectively by 
nations. Five nations were represented : Italy, 

* According to certain criticf, John Gerson is the author of the Imita- 
tion of Christ, ' ' the most beautiful book that ever came from the hand of 
man, the Gospel being divinely inspired." Some attribute the Imitation 
to the Italian Benedictine Giovanni Gersen, but the most popular and 
widely-received opinion is that the author was Thomas h, Kempis, canon of 
Cologne, who died about the year 1471. 



394 History of the Middle Ages. 

Germany, France, England, and Spain. From tlie 
first it was agreed to demand the abdication, pure 
and simple, of the three popes. John XXIII., re- 
fusing, lied to Schalfhausen, disguised as a groom 
(1415). Arrested soon after by order of the emperor 
and deposed by the council, he renounced a title 
which, by his own admission, had not left him a 
single happy day. Gregory XII. made a more gener- 
ous sacrifice for the good of the Church. After annul- 
ling the acts of the popes of Avignon and of Bologna, 
he confirmed all his own acts and those of his prede- 
cessors, convoked the council, and then resigned the 
pontifical dignity for ever. The unyielding Bene- 
dict XIII. was deposed. The twenty-three cardinals 
present at Constance then entered into conclave with 
thirty deputies of the council, and unanimously 
elected Cardinal Otto Colonna, who took the name 
of Martin Y. (1417). 

The great schism was closed. Benedict XIII., iso- 
lated on the rock of Peiiiscola, in the kingdom of 
Aragon, continued to call himself pope and to hurl 
his harmless thunderbolts. He had an anti-pope for 
successor, who finally acknowledged Martin V. A 
more serious danger lay in the decrees of Constance 
against the rights of the Holy See. The assembly, 
assuming unlimited i')ower, had attempted to reform 
the Church both in her members and in her chief ; 
it had even decreed the periodical assembly of gen- 
eral councils, which it declared superior to the pope. 
Martin Y., declining to sanction these claims, post- 
poned their examination to the next council and 
closed that of Constance. 

Heresy a:s^d Death of Joh:n" Huss (1415). — The 
Council of Constance had been assembled not only 



Fifth Epoch. 395 

to restore unity and introduce reforms in the 
Church but also to suppress tlie evil of heresy. The 
errors which John Wicklilfe had spread in England 
had got access to Bohemia, and were beginning to 
infect the neighboring countries. The heresy was 
made more contagious by the reputation and in- 
fluence of its leader in Bohemia, John Huss, the 
rector of the University of Prague. Under pretext 
of attacking the abuse of indulgences he went so far 
as to deny their lawfulness, the primacy of the pope, 
the infallibility of the Church, the right of the clergy 
to possess temporalities, the power of forgiving sins, 
and the honor due to saints and images. This bold 
heresiarch admitted no other authority than Holy 
Scripture interpreted by reason, and thus rendered 
the laity as competent as bishops to judge in matters 
of faith. In this way his doctrines gained some 
credit among the Bohemian people and nobles, and 
hence arose disturbances that neither the censures 
of the archbishop of Prague nor the intervention of 
the pope could allay. John Huss had appealed to a 
future council. Cited before the Council of Con- 
stance, he wrote that he was ready to be judged and 
punished if convicted of error. The Emperor Sigis- 
mund then gave him a safe conduct, which did not 
guarantee him from the punishment to which he had 
professed his readiness to submit, but protected him 
during his journey to the council, and procured him 
an opportunity to defend himself, if he could, from 
what he had stated to be calumnies. 

John Huss, having reached Constance, was examin- 
ed, convicted of error, and imprisoned. His writ- 
ings and those of Wickliffe were publicly burnt. 
As he obstinately refused to retract, he was solemnly 



396 History of the Middle Ages, 

dcgruclcd from holy orders, and given up to the 
magistrates of Constance, who, in accordance with 
the hiws of the empire, condemned him to be burnt. 
His disciple, Jerome of Prague, suffered the same 
punishment. Tlio sectaries of John Huss, called 
Hussites, took up arms and ravaged Bohemia and tlie 
surrounding countries with fire and slaughter. 

EuGENius lY. (1431-1447) axd the Coun-cil 
OF Basle ; the Ajtti-Pope Felix V. (1439). — A 
new council, convoked at Basle by Pope Martin V., 
was not Oldened till under his successor, Eugenius 
IV. (1431). The assembly, in concert with the sove- 
reign pontiff, extinguished the heresy of the Huss- 
ites ; but in separating from the vicar of Christ it 
made only powerless and scandalous attempts to set- 
tle the two other points at issue — the reform of the 
Church and the reconciliation of tlie Greeks. From 
the outset it renewed the pretensions of Constance 
against the legitimate authority of the Holy See, A 
decree, issued by fourteen prelates, of whom only six 
were bishops, declared the council to he superior to 
the pope, and that it could not be dissolved or 
transferred without its own consent. A papal bull, 
which prorogued the Council of Basle on account of 
the insufficient number of prelates, was regarded as 
null and void ; Eugenius was even summoned to ap- 
pear at Basle within three months. The Emperor 
Sigismund, dreading au other schism, effected a mo- 
mentary reconciliation. But other Christian princes 
and the University of Paris countenanced the assem- 
bly in its assumptions. After proclaiming the supe- 
riority of councils and their periodical reunion, it de- 
creed the election of bishops by diocesan chapters, 
put a limit to appeals to the court of Rome, restricted 



Fifth Epoch. 397 

the pecuniary rights of the Holy See, and arrogat- 
ed the privilege of publisliing indulgences through- 
out Christendom. Because Eugenius IV. had pro- 
tested and had transferred the council to Ferrara, be 
was cited to appear with the cardinals within sixty 
days. The pope was condemned for contumacy, as 
a disturber of peace and as an obstinate heretic, and 
was declared to have forfeited the j)ontifical dignity. 
A mock conclave, composed of one cardinal and thirty- 
two ecclesiastics of every grade, pretended to elect a 
new pope in the person of Amadous VIII., who five 
years before had resigned the ducal crown of Savoy. 
This prince reluctantly consented to leave his de- 
lightful monastic retreat of Ri^^aille to assume the 
tiara as Felix V. (1439). 

These scandals threw all Christendom into com- 
motion. Although Catholic sovereigns disapproved 
of them, they seized the occasion to enforce several 
schismatical decrees of the Council of Basle ; hence 
the Germanic Pragmatic Sanction promulgated by 
the emperor, and the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges 
(1438) published by the king of France, destined to 
be the basis of the so-called '^ Liberties of the Galil- 
ean Church." The most learned and pious of the 
Council of Basle, foreseeing the woes in store for the 
Church, withdrew, exclaiming: ^^This is not the 
Church of God, but the synagogue of Satan." 

Eeukion- of the Greeks (1439) an"d Ek"d of 
THE Schism (1449). — Pope Eugenius IV., having ex- 
communicated the assembly of Basle and annulled all 
its decrees, had just opened at Ferrara a council, which 
tlie following year was transferred to Florence. Its 
ol)ject was to bring about the reconciliation of the 
Greek and Latin churches, which had been so long 



308 History of the Middle Ages. 

desired. Tlie emperor, John Palaeologus, was pre- 
sent at tlie deliberations of the council. The jiatri- 
arch of Constantinople and the most learned and dis- 
tinguished prelates and others of the Eastern empire 
were there. After long discussions the far-famed 
Bessarion, Archbishop of Nicaea, and other (ireek 
prelates confessed the primacy of the Holy See, the 
existence of Purgatory, the use of unleavened bread 
for the sacrament of the Eucharist, and even the 
procession of the Holy Ghost from both the Father 
and the Son. Then the Greeks and Latins made the 
same profession of faith and embraced with trans- 
ports of joy (1439). These glad tidings filled the 
Catholic world with Jubilation. It was the triumph 
of the pontifical authority at the time when the 
Council of Basle, having signally failed in its nego- 
tiations with the Greeks, completely lost favor by its 
very excesses. The plague soon scattered its mem- 
bers, and the anti-pope, Felix V., sought refuge in 
Lausanne. Deserted by the German princes and the 
king of France, who called him " My Lord of Sa- 
voy,'' he put an end to the scandalous farce by a vol- 
untary abdication (1449). The successor of Euge- 
nius was Nicholas Y. (1447-1455), who had the glory 
of healing the schism. He wiped out its last trace 
in Germany by the Germanic Concordat. His au- 
thority was enhanced by a long-since obsolete cere- 
mony — the solemn coronation at Rome of the Ger- 
man Emperor Frederick by the sovereign pontiff 
(U52). 

It was the last time Rome was to witness this im- 
posing ceremony. The next year brought news of 
the fall of Constantinople. In vain did Nicholas V. 
and his successors preach a crusade against the Otto- 



Fifth Epoch. 399 

man Turks. The great schism, by weakening faith, 
had rendered Christians less sensible to its benefits 
and to the fear of the papal thunders. The lloly 
See had lost its former hold on Catholic govern- 
ments, while its spiritual authority was jeopardized 
both by the assumptions of Gallicanism and by the 
growing germs of a heresy which in the coming cen- 
tury would, at the call of Luther, sever the half of 
Christian Europe from the Church. 



CHAPTER II. 

FRANCE AND ENGLAND— THE HUNDRED 
YEARS' WAR. 

France and England, having become the most powerful na- 
tions of the West, contend in a war of a hundred years 
(1337-1453), divided into two periods by the death of Chai'les 
Y, (1380). France, in each period, after sustaining great dis- 
asters, retrieves them by brilliant successes. 

Sec. 1. The Last Capets and the First Three Valois 

(1270-1380) ; Struggle of the Tliree Plant agenet 

Edwards (1272-1377) against France and Scot- 
land. 

GkEATN'ESS of FrAN'CE Ui^DER THE LaST CaPETS. 

-^Philip III., the Bold (1270-1285), the son and suc- 
cessor of St. Louis, had gloriously ended the last 
Crusade. On his return to France he received the 
rich inheritance of the counts of Toulouse by the 
death of his brother Alphonse of Poitiers. Although 
unsuccessful in his wars against Castile in behalf of 
his disinherited nephews, or against Aragon in re- 



400 History of the Middle Ages. 

vcnge for the Sicilian Vespers, he at least obtained 
for his son Philip the hand of Joanna, the heiress 
of Kavarre and Champagne. Phili^i IV., the Fair 
(1285-1314), acquired not only his wife's dower but 
also the great city of Lyons. lie undertook, too, 
ihe conquest of Guienne, but was soon obliged to 
restore this province to Edward 1., as the dowry of 
liis daughter Isabella, who espoused the heir of the 
English throne. It was an easier task to despoil 
Guy of Dampierre, Count of Flanders (1297). The 
Flemings then, exasperated by the tyrannical admin- 
istration set over them, cut the French army ta 
pieces under the walls of Courtrai (1302). Philip, 
having taken j^artial vengeance at the victory of Mons 
(1304), agreed to evacuate all the country, except 
Lille and other fortified towns of French Flanders. 
Thus the crown domains under Hugh Capet, 
bounded by the Seine and the Loire, under Philip 
the Fair extended between the Rhone and the Medi- 
terranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and the Scheldt. 
Philip, powerful abroad by alliance and arms, was 
loyally obeyed by his lords and other subjects, whom 
he burdened with exorbitant taxes. His courtiers 
flattered his ambition by the project of a monarchy 
embracing Europe and the Eastern empire ; but 
Philip devoted the latter years of his reign to the 
humiliation of the Holy See and the ruin of the 
Templars. This conduct, so unworthy a grandson 
of St. Louis, TVas overtaken with deserved chastise- 
ment. Philip's three sons, Louis X. le Hutin (the 
Stubborn), Philip V., the Long, and Charles IV., the 
Fair, during a space of fourteen years successively 
filled the throne, and the crown then passed to the 
family of Valois (1328). 



Fifth Epoch. 401 

Edward I. (1272-1307) ; Cojtquest of Wales 
(1283) AND Scotland (1297): — Edward I., having 
returned from the Holy Land, at once set to work 
to remedy the evils resulting from the civil war 
which he had so happily ended under the reign of 
his father, Henry III. Wiser than his predecessors, 
he confined his attempts at conquest to Great Britain. 
Wales was peopled by the Celtic Britons, who had 
found a shelter in its mountain fastnesses from tlxe 
attacks of the Anglo-Saxons. They had never more 
than partially submitted to English sovereignty, and 
when Llewellyn, prince of North Wales, was sum- 
moned to pay homage to Edward L, he yielded 
only through compulsion, and seized the first oppor- 
tunity to take up arms. The Welsh responded to 
his ap]3eal, but their native courage, roused to the 
highest pitch by the w^ar-songs of the bards, was 
powerless against numbers and discipline ; their 
prince fell, arms in hand, and his head, wreathed 
with ivy, was exposed by the conqueror on the 
Tower of London. Edward I. remained master of 
the country (1283), and took measures to conciliate 
the inhabitants. In Caernarvon Castle his queen, 
Eleanor of Castile, gave birth to a son, the heir to 
the English crown (1284). A great number of the 
Welsh chiefs assembled to offer their homage to 
Edward three days afterwards. They asked for a 
prince of their own nation — one knowing neither 
French nor Saxon, which languages were difficult for 
a Celtic ear to understand. Edward then had his 
infant son i^resented to them, declaring at the same 
time that he had been born in Wales, and knew 
neither French nor English, and was therefore the 
very prince they had asked for. From that day the 



402 HiSTOR r of the Middle A ges. 

male heir to the English crown has borne the title 
of the Prince of Wiilos. But though the Britons 
of AVales were foi'ced to succumb, it was not without 
sorrow that they lost their independence. Tliis was 
the despairing cry of one of the bards of the van- 
quished : ^^ Christ ! my Saviour ! let me go 
down to the tomb, now that the name of a bard is 
vain and empty." 

Edward soon had an opportunity to make a still 
more important conquest. Scotland, converted to 
the faith by St. Columbkille, was known to the Latin 
chroniclers as Scotia Minor, as has been stated else- 
where. The southern and eastern parts of the 
country, known as the Lowlands, were inhabited by 
the descendants of the Saxons and Scandinavians, 
wlio spoke a dialect of English ; while the northern 
and western parts, known as the Highlands, as well 
as the Hebrides and the islands on the west coast, 
were possessed by the Celtic tribes of Gaels, or Scots, 
wlio were of Irish origin, and made their first colony 
in Scotland at Argyle (the land of the Gael). Their 
language was and still is the Gaelic, common to 
them and the Celtic L'ish. By the middle of the 
ninth century the Scots had extended their dominions 
over the Picts (painted men), who were a Celtic 
people related to the Britons, and over all the other 
inhabitants of the country. Their royal dynasty 
became extinct in the person of Alexander III. (1286), 
and a crowd of aspirants for the throne appeared, 
chief among whom were John Baliol and Robert 
Bruce. They were both of Anglo-Norman race, 
though of the royal blood by their mother's side. 
Edward I., chosen as arbitrator, decided in favor 
of Baliol, on condition that he would acknowledge 



Fifth Epoch, 403 

himself as vassal of the crown of England. The 
new king sought to evade this humiliating condi- 
tion. Thinking himself strong in the alliance of 
Philip the Fair, he asserted his independence by 
force of arms, but he was taken prisoner, sent first 
to the Tower of London, and thence to his own 
domains in Normandy (1297). By an act of per- 
fidy characteristic more of England than France, 
kings Philip and Edward mutually sacrificed their 
allies, the Scots and the Flemings. Edward easily 
gained possession of Scotland. His tyrannical gov- 
ernment soon caused discontent, which spread among 
all classes. A private gentleman, named William 
Wallace, took up arms against the Southrons, as 
the English were called, and made himself feared 
by his courage, boldness, and activity. Victorious 
on many occasions, he would have freed Scotland 
had it not been for the jealousy and suspicion 
which everywhere prevailed. At the battle of 
Falkirk, just as he was about to win the day, a 
body of cavalry, mostly Scottish nobles, basely de- 
serted him, as they could not bring themselves to 
give cordial support to one not of noble blood. This 
hero of independence was at last betrayed, and, being 
brought to London, was tried and beheaded as a 
traitor, leaving a name justly popular among his 
countrymen (1305). 

Among the lords most hostile to him was Eobert 
Bruce, a grandson of John Baliol's competitor. One 
day, after a bloody engagement with the Scots, hav- 
ing sat down to table without washing his hands, he 
heard some Englishmen saying in an undertone : 
'^ See that Scot eating his own flesh." Shamed by 
these words, Robert withdrew to a chapel hard by. 



404 History of the Middle Ages, 

and, asking God's pardon for his treason to Scotland, 
made a solemn vow never to fight again but for the 
liberty of his country. Proclaimed king of Scotland 
soon afterwards (1306), he engaged in a desperate 
struggle with the English. Edward I. was advanc- 
ing against iiim when he died. He charged his son 
to have his body boiled and his skeleton detached 
and carried at the head of the army to render it 
invincible against the Scots. 

Disastrous Reigj^ of Edward II. (1307-1327).— 
Edward II. had neither his father's implacable hatred 
nor his great courage, and soon returned to London. 
The new monarch, naturally weak and indolent, gave 
himself up to a life of ease and pleasure. An unwor- 
thy favorite, Piers Gaveston, was invested with great 
power, which he employed in the furtherance of his 
selfish and immoral designs. The English barons, 
with their national jealousy of foreigners, leagued 
against Gaveston, and the unfortunate man, of whom 
they had individually been afraid, having fallen into 
their hands, was beheaded. The king, constrained 
to pardon the rebels, followed rather than led them 
against Scotland. The opposing armies met at Ban- 
nockburn (1314) ; the English numbered about fifty 
thousand, the Scots four thousand. At daybreak 
the abbot of Inchaffray said Mass in presence of the 
Scottish army, and then, bearing a crucifix, led them 
into line of battle, where they knelt and prayed. 
The English were completely routed, and, it was 
often said, " drew tlieir first breath at Durham." By 
this victory — almost the only one ever gained by the 
Scots for their own benefit — Bruce secured the inde- 
pendence of his country. 

England's disasters were still further aggravated 



Fifth Epoch. 405 

by a liorrible famine. Edward, insensible to public 
woes, surrendered his power to his new favorites, 
the two Spencers. His queen, Isabella, under a 
false pretext landed in France. Her real motive 
was to find the means of dethroning her husband. 
Edward, deserted by all, consented to abdicate the 
throne (1327). Parliament, which had taken the 
direction of affairs, entrusted the government to the 
Prince of Wales. The barons were anxious to be rid 
of Edward, and encouraged, it is supposed, by Queen 
Isabella, the persecuted king was foully murdered in 
such a way that no trace might be left of the crime. 
His cruel death excited compassion, for he aj)peared 
less blameworthy than unfortunate. 

Philip VI. of Valois (1328-1350) a^d Edwaed 
III. (1327-1377) ; Battles of Crecy and Nevil's 
Ceoss (1346). — The direct line of the Capets being ex- 
tinct in Charles IV., the Fair, two claimants for the 
crown of France appeared — Philip, Count of Valois, 
on his father's side a gran c" son of Philip HI., and 
Edward III., King of England, whose mother, Isa- 
bella, was the daughter of Philip the Fair. The 
Salic law, excluding women, had been appealed to 
for the benefit of the two last Capetians, and it was 
now applied for the third time in favor of Philip of 
Valois, who was proclaimed king under the name of 
Philip VI. 

His first act was to annex the province of Cham- 
pagne to the crown, leaving the kingdom of Na- 
varre to Joanna, the daughter of Louis le Hutin, 
and wife of the count of Evreux. The same year 
Philip w^ent to the assistance of his vassal, the count 
of Flanders, whose subjects had revolted against his 
exactions. The brilliant victory won by the French 



406 History of the 3Iiddle Ages. 

at Cassel over the insurgent Flemings (1328) de- 
termined the English king to do homage to Philip 
for his duchy of Guienne ; but he soon broke with 
the French king, whom he looked upon as a rival 
rather than as his suzerain. Edward III., pro- 
claimed king of England at the age of fifteen, had 
all the qualities that make a great ruler — wisdom, 
firmness, courage, and rare ability in the execution of 
his designs. His mother, Isabella, aimed at reigning 
in his name in consort with her favorite, Roger Morti- 
mer. The young prince, under their influence, was 
persuaded to acknowledge the independence of Scot- 
land and to promise his sister's hand to David Bruce, 
son of King Robert. But soon afterwards, profiting 
by the general discontent, he shook off the galling 
conti-ol. Mortimer was hanged and Isabella shut up 
in Castle Riding, where she spent the remaining 
twenty-seven years of her life expiating her crimes. 
At the same time (1329) the death of Robert Bruce 
gave Scotland up to anarchy. His son, David II., 
only four years old, had a dangerous rival in Edward 
Baliol, who revived the claims of his father to the 
crown of Scotland. The English king was only too 
glad to take part in the dispute. He gained a great 
victory over the Scots under the regent, Douglas, at 
Halidon Hill (1333), and Baliol was established on 
the Scottish throne as Edward's vassal. 

Edward III. was influenced by the advice of Robert 
of Artois, the brother-in-law and mortal enemy of 
the French king. Philip VI., unable to induce 
Edward to surrender the traitor's person, by way of 
reprisal ordered the count of Flanders to arrest all 
the English on his domains. Edward, on the other 
hand, forbade his subjects to sell English wool or to 



Fifth Epoch, 407 

buy riomisli cloths. This measure threatened to 
ruin Flemish manufactures, for it deprived them at 
once of the raw material and their principal market. 
An insurrection broke out under Jacob van Arteveld, 
a brewer of Ghent, and head of the trades-guilds of 
that city. The king of England, only awaiting a 
favorable opport^inity, declared war against Philip of 
Valois (1337). By the advice of Arteveld he pro- 
claimed himself king of France, quartered the French 
lilies with the arms of England, and embarked for 
the Continent. The French fleet that was to pre- 
yent his landing was utterly destroyed in the harbor 
of Sluys (1340). Edward was unsuccessful in the 
north of France, but in Brittany he maintained the 
claims of the Montfort family to that duchy. He 
undertook another expedition. After immense pre- 
parations he landed in Normandy and pillaged the 
country south of the Seine almost to Paris. Philip 
moved to attack him, when Edward suddenly crossed 
the Seine and halted in the forest of Crecy. Here 
he had the advantage of position. His foresight, 
the skill of the English bowmen, the startling effects 
of his five or six pieces of cannon, and the valor of 
the Prince of Wales, known as the Black Prince, 
then in his sixteenth year, secured him a decisive 
victory over a much larger but rash and undisciplined 
army. As a result of this victory, Calais fell into 
Edward's hands, and thus gave the English an easy 
landing-place in France. 

Success was still more signal in England. David 
Bruce, having regained his authority in Scotland, 
profited by Edward's absence to invade his kingdom 
at the instigation of Philip VI., but the queen of 
England, Philippa of Hainaut, displayed an energy 



408 History of the Middle Ages. 

and ability worthy of her husband himself. David, 
beaten and taken prisoner at Nevil's Cross, was in- 
carcerated in the Tower of London (134G). Baliol, 
haying ceded his right to the English king, relapsed 
into obscurity. Edward, now sole master of all Great 
Britain, had nothing further to fear from France, 
which was decimated by the terrible Black Plague. 
Philip died with the reputation of a brave but im- 
pulsive and improvident king. During his reign 
France acquired Dauphiny, whose last count palatine 
was Humbert II. A condition of its cession was that 
the heir to the French crown should bear the title of 
Dauphin. 

Jon^s^ XL, THE Good, axd Edwaed III. (1350- 
1364). — John 11. , surnamed the Good, had all his 
father's defects and graver difficulties to overcome. 
The States-General undertook to limit the royal au- 
thority, and Charles, the wicked Count of Evreux and 
King of Xavarre, secretly intrigued with the English. 
King John had this faithless prince arrested, and 
undertook to occupy his domains in Normandy. But 
now appeared a more formidable enemy. The Black 
Prince advanced from Bordeaux to the centre of 
Prance. The French, whose forces were six times as 
great, attempted to crush, him near Poitiers. They 
committed the same faults as at Crecy, and sustained 
a defeat as signal and still more disgraceful ; for the 
king of France, being basely deserted, fell into the 
hands of the victor. John was treated as a king by 
the Black Prince, and as a prisoner of war by Ed- 
ward III., who consigned him to the Tower of 
London. 

This captivity threw France into a critical condi- 
tion. The Dauphin, Charles, convoked the States- 



Fifth Epoch. 409 

General at Paris, but found them less disposed to 
ujDliold the cause of their country than to take ad- 
vantage of its distress. Stephen Marcel, the i)rovost 
of the merchants of Paris, was the leader of the 
l^opular party, whose army was given over to the 
command of Charles of Navarre, who soon betrayed 
it, when Marcel was assassinated (1358). At the 
same time the revolt of the peasants, called the 
'^Jacquerie," took j^lace and added to the general 
disorder. The dauphin wisely restored quiet, and 
still more wisely declined to ransom his father by the 
surrender of the territory on the Continent formerly 
possessed by the English. Edward III., after an 
useless invasion, signed the treaty of Bretigny (1360), 
by which he abandoned Poitou, Saintonge, and 
Limousin. John was conditionally liberated. Being 
unable to pay his ransom, he gave himself up again 
to his conqueror, saying: "If honor were banished 
from every other place it should find an asylum in 
the breasts of kings." He founded an order of 
knighthood called the Star, which soon fell into 
discredit. The Order of the Garter, founded by 
Edward III. (1349), still exists, with its well-known 
device, Honni soil qui mal y yense ("Shame to him 
v»'ho evil thinks "). 

Charles V. and Edward III. (1364-1380) ; Du 
GuESCLii^. — Charles V., the AYise, had during his 
father's lifetime gained an experience which enabled 
him to retrieve the losses of France. Confined to his 
palace by ill-health, he confided the execution of his 
plans to the valiant knight Du Guesclin. 

The greatest scourge of the time in France were 
the Free Companies, who sold their services to any 
who could pay for them. When unemployed by 



410 History of the Middle Ages, 

others these brigands operated on their own account 
and were a terror to all parties. Du Guesclin, hav- 
ing assembled an army of these Free Companions, or 
Freebooters, led them into Spain, thus ridding Franco 
of their evil presence and making an ally of Henry 
of Transtamare, whom he placed upon the throne of 
Castile. Du Gucsclin being taken prisoner again by 
the English, he fixed his own ransom at a great price. 
He soon secured the throne to Henry Transtamare, 
and thus led to a still more glorious triumph. The 
Black Prince himself gave the opportunity ; his ex- 
actions having given rise to complaints among the 
Aquitanians, he was summoned by Charles V., his 
suzerain for that domain, before the court of peers 
(13G9). Instead of appearing, the prince pillaged 
Limoges. This was his last exploit, his infirmities 
obliging him to return to England. The leaders 
•who succeeded him were powerless against the bra- 
very and skilful tactics of the constable Du Guesclin, 
who seized all their strongholds except Bordeaux, 
Bayonne, and Calais. The constable was fighting in 
Gevaudan when he died as a good Christian and a 
faithful servant of his king. He was undoubtedly the 
greatest general of the time. Charles V. soon fol- 
lowed him to the tomb, after having seen France de- 
livered from the woes she had suffered under his two 
predecessors. Edward III., less fortunate, ended in 
gloom a reign begun in prosperity ; his troops were 
driven from the Continent, and his beloved son, the 
Black Prince, snatched away by premature death. 
The English had truly said in reply to the French, 
who tauntingly asked when they would return to 
France : " We shall return when your sins are greater 
than ours ! " 



Fifth Epoch, 411 

Sec. 2. Anarchy in England and France ; tlie Lancas- 
ter s and Stuarts ; Final Triumph of Charles VI I. 
EiCHARD XL (1377-1399) ; John Wickliffe aj^d 
Wat Tyler. — Richard, son of the Black Prince, 
was but eleven years old when he took his grand- 
father's throne. His four uncles — the dukes of Cla- 
rence, Lancaster, York, and Gloucester — ruled Eng- 
land for their own emolument. Their tyranny and 
rapacity aggravated the evils of the war with France, 
and fomented an insurrection which had long been 
in preparation through the fanaticism and subversive 
doctrines of John Wickliffe and his followers, the 
Lollards. AVickliffe had taught theology in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, bnt, being disappointed in his 
hopes of becoming bishop, threatened to have full 
revenge on the Holy See. He found an opportunity 
in the unwillingness of Edward III. to pay the tri- 
bute, as his predecessors had done. Wickliffe de- 
fended the monarch's obstinacy, and had his reward 
in a rich benefice and the protection of the court. 
Emboldened by this success, he denied the primacy 
of the Holy See, ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the neces- 
sity of baptism and of confession. He asserted that 
none but those entirely free from sin have a right to 
possess property or to hold office. Shortly after this 
a poll-tax was imposed, and this drove the peasantry 
to desperation (1381). An itinerant preacher named 
John Ball, a Wickliffite, addressed the furious 
crowds. He advised the levelling of all titles, differ- 
ences, and distinctions, and insisted that all things 
should be held in common. He was a commnnist. 
The text of his first sermon was : 

" When Adam delved and Ev6 span 
Where was then the gentleman ? " 



4:12 History of the Middle Ages. 

"Wat Tyler, an Essex blacksmith, enraged at tlic 
brutality of one of the collectors, struck him dead 
with his hammer, and thus gave the first signal of 
^ revolt. A hundred thousand workmen and peasants 
(villeins) took up arms. They massacred the royal 
officials, jolundered castles, and committed other ex- 
cesses. On their march to London they sang the 
text of the Lollard sermon. 

The insurgents, once masters of London, ravaged 
it with fire and slaughter. The king, to save the 
capital, enticed a large body of the rebels to a con- 
ference in the meadows outside the city at Mile 
End, under pretext of redressing their grievances. 
But Wat Tyler was not disposed to compromise. 
After killing the archbishop of Canterbury and 
others who had fallen into his hands, at the head of 
twenty thousand followers he met the king and a 
small party of horsemen in Smithficld. While ad- 
dressing the sovereign he used a threatening gesture, 
whereupon the lord mayor of London stabbed the in- 
surgent to the heart. A cry was raised from the 
armed multitudes ; but, ere they could bend their 
cross-bows, Richard, though but fifteen years of age, 
galloped up and fearlessly addressed them. 'MVhat 
are ye doing, my lieges?" he said. ''Wat was a 
traitor; come with me, and I will be your leader." 
They followed him then to Mile End, where the 
royal troops were drawn up, whose commander 
begged leave to charge the rebels. ''Rebels," re- 
joined Richard in the hearing of the insurgents, 
"they are no more ; these are my subjects and chil- 
dren." The young monarch, by this conciliatory 
language and by promises of redress, put down the 
rebellion. Ilis promises were not kept, however. 



Fifth Epoch. 413 

and the ringleaders were executed soon after. As 
they had been Wickliffe's proselytes, a synod called 
at London (1382) formally pronounced a censure 
against the heresiarch, which was afterwards con- 
firmed at Constance and Basle. 

Deposition of Eichaed II.; Henry IV. (1399- 
1413) AND THE Stuarts. — Richard found it easier to 
quell insurrection than to free himself from the 
tyranny of his uncles, who had Parliament and the 
barons on their side. An unfortunate expedition 
into Scotland emboldened his enemies. He had to 
give up his chief counsellors and surrender the exer- 
cise of power to his youngest uncle, the duke of 
Gloucester (13SG). The ambitious duke, while pre- 
tending to reform abuses, only aggravated them by 
his exactions and cruelty. The Parliament became 
tlie servile tool of the most tyrannical measures. 
Richard made use of the general discontent to re- 
establish his authority (1389). His wise administra- 
tion soon brought back peace and prosperity to the 
kingdom. The people blessed the rule of a prince 
solicitous, for their weal, but the barons were dis- 
pleased with their loss of power. They clamored 
against a truce with the king of France, whose 
daughter, Isabella, was married to Richard (1396). 
The factious duke of Gloucester rallied the malcon- 
tents, but was arrested by the king, conveyed to 
Calais, and there murdered in prison. Richard took 
revenge on all v/hom he had reason to fear, and even 
confiscated the inheritance of his uncle, the duke of 
Lancaster, v/hose son, Henry, was banished to the 
Continent. 

Henry of Lancaster, who had many partisans in 
England, suddenly landed and raised the standard 



414 History of the Middle ages. 

of revolt. Richard was betrayed, thrown into prison, 
and forced to abdicate. In default of heirs to Rich- 
ard, the crown reverted by right to the descendants 
of the duke of Clarence, the second son of Edward 
III. But Iienry of Lancaster, whose father was the 
third son of Edward, had the advantage of his recent 
triumph, together with the support of the troops, 
the barons, and Parliament. He was proclaimed 
king of France and England (1399). The usurper 
took means to secure his throne. The hapless Rich- 
ard, after a plot devised for his rescue, was found 
dead in his dungeon. Many English barons made 
an alliance with the Welsh, Scots, and the xinglo- 
Normans of Ireland to recover the throne for the 
house of Clarence ; but Henry defeated them in tho 
decisive victory of Shrewsbury (1403). Having 
nothing further to fear for his crown, he completed 
the reduction of Wales and struck a fatal blow at 
the authority of the Stuarts in Scotland. 

David Bruce, King of Scotland, ten years a captive 
in the Tower of London, was set free by Edward III. 
As he was childless, he devised his inheritance to his 
nephew, Robert Stuart, a grandson, by his mother, of 
Robert I. (Bruce), and on his father's side the head 
of a family which, for three centuries, had held 
the office of steward. Robert IL (1371-1390) 
had a reign characterized by three peculiarities com- 
mon to nearly all the rulers of the Stuart dynasty — 
weakness of the royal authority, intimate alliance 
with France, and a leaning to deceit and falsehood. 
His son, Robert IIL (1390-1405), of a peaceful and 
indolent disposition, was less the head than the play- 
thing of the Scottish lords. The management of 
affairs he left to his brother, the duke of Albany. 



Fifth Epoch, 415 

To give his son an education, and especially to se- 
cure liis safety, he sent him to France on a vessel 
that was captured by English pirates. Henry IV., 
with tlie English disregard of the law of nations, 
although there was a truce with Scotland, treated 
the young prince as his prisoner. Kobert died of 
grief. His heir was not set at liberty. Tlie English 
king was eager to involve Scotland in anarchy, so 
that he might employ all his forces in a national war 
with France. 

Charles VI. (1380-1422). —Charles VI., but 
twelve years old at the death of his father, Charles 
v., was kept in the guardianship of his uncles only 
to satisfy their ambition and rapacity. The great 
schism seemed to have let loose the tyrannical pas- 
sions of princes and a spirit of turbulence among the 
people. While Paris was reeking with the sedition 
of the '' Maillotins," all Flanders was in revolt under 
Philip van Arteveld, a son of the Jacob who had 
been slain by his own townsmen. Young Charles, 
victorious over the Flemings at Eosebecque (1382), 
restored order to his kingdom. But as he could not 
inspire his uncles with solicitude for the public good, 
he cliose ministers to su^^ersede them. The princi- 
pal of these, Olivier de Clisson, Constable of France, 
was attacked one night and left for dead in a street 
of Paris. Charles, indignant at such an outrage, 
was meditating vengeance when he became deranged 
(1392). His uncles again eagerly seized the reins of 
state. One of them, Philip the Bold, Duke of Bur- 
gundy, who had wedded the heiress of Flanders, 
governed the kingdom with as much authority as if 
he had been its sovereign. This excited the jealousy 
and resentment of Louis, Duke of Orleans, the king's 



416 History of the Middle Ages. 

brother, and consequently first prince of the blood. 
The death of his rival soon left him in power, but he 
fell under an attack of John the Fearless, the new- 
duke of Burgundy, who equalled his father in am- 
bition and surpassed him in audacity and cruelty. 
The assassination of Louis of Orleans (1407) en- 
kindled civil war between the Burgundians and the 
Armagnacs. The latter had just taken Paris when 
the English began the Hundred Years' War. 

He]s-ey V. (M13-1422) ; Battle of Agixcourt 
(1415). — Henry IV., snatched away by premature 
death, had charged his eldest son to secure the 
throne to the House of Lancaster by a war against 
France. Henry V. began his reign by a thorough 
change of life. From the rake and the libertine he 
had been he became affable and correct in his man- 
ners. His old boon companions were refused ad- 
mittance to his society, while he lavished favors on 
Chief-Justice Gascoigne, who had once sent him to 
prison for a midnight frolic. All the proscribed of 
the preceding reign recovered their possessions and 
dignities. He was severe only to the Lollard in- 
surgents under Sir John Oldcastle, one of his former 
associates in pleasure. 

Henry V., finding himself equally popular and 
powerful in England, claimed the crown of France 
as his lawful inheritance. He landed at the mouth 
of the Seine, and took Harfleur after a five weeks' 
siege. As he was proceeding to Calais for the pur- 
pose of recruiting his forces, he was brought to a 
stand near Agincourt by an army four times greater 
than his own. He secured advantages similar to 
those at Crecy and Poitiers, while the French com- 
mitted the same errors, resulting in a defeat which 



Fifth Epocu. 417 

cost them more than ten thousand- men, including 
the constable of France. The unceasing wrangling 
of the French gave greater aid to the English. 
The Burgundians, on becoming masters of Paris, slew 
the count of Armagnac and his partisans (1418). 
The following year the Dauphin, Charles, who had 
narrowly escaped from the massacre of the Arma- 
gnacs, proposed an alliance with the duke of Bur- 
gundy for the purpose of expelling the English, but 
the assassination of John the Fearless plunged the 
kingdom into dire calamities, as Philip the Good, 
the new duke of Burgundy, sought only to avenge 
his father. Queen Isabella of Bavaria, an unnatural 
wife and mother, made common cause with him by 
the disgraceful treaty of Troyes (1420). The king 
of England married the daughter of Charles YI., 
and was solemnly acknowledged heir presumptive to 
the crown, in violation of the Salic law, and to the 
exclusion of the Dauphin, Charles, who withdrew to 
the provinces south of the Loire. France would 
perhaps have lost her independence had it not been 
for the premature deaths of the formidable Henry V. 
and of the unfortunate Charles YI. 

Heis^ry YI. (1422-1471) axd Charles YIL 
(1422-1461) ; Ekd of the Huis^dred Years' War. 
— Henry YI., then in his cradle, was proclaimed 
king of England and France, under the protection 
of his uncles, the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester. 
The Dauphin, proclaimed king of France as Charles 
YIL, held but a part of the kingdom, and seemed 
too sluggish to conquer the rest. The victorious 
English were confident of overcoming the young 
prince, whom, in derision, they called *•' King of 
Bourges." They were already pressing round Or- 



418 History of the Middle Ages. 

leans, and Charles was about to quit France, when 
he received unlooked-for succor. Joan of Arc, a 
simple peasant-girl of the village of Domrcmy, met 
the French court at Cliinon, and announced to 
Charles that Heaven had commissioned her to deliver 
Orleans and to have him crowned in the city of 
Eheims (1420). The event justilied this extraordi- 
nary assertion. After the coronation she declared 
her mission accomplished, and begged to be dismissed; 
but the king being unwilling to lose her services so 
soon, she undertook to defend Compiegne, and, not- 
withstanding her heroic efforts, fell into the hands 
of the English. The English found lier guilty of 
w^itchcraft, and cruelly inflicted the penalty of that 
crime on her at Eouen (1431). 

Thanks to the Maid of Orleans, factions were now 
at an end, and the French king re-entered his capital 
the following year. After a series of victorious cam- 
paigns a treaty of peace was concluded between the 
French and the English, by which the latter retained 
only Guienne and Normandy (1444). To cement 
peace Henry VI. wedded Margaret of Anjou, a 
daughter of the good King Eene. Tliis marriage 
and the evacuation of Maine, which was the price 
paid for it, increased the discontent in England. 
Tlie duke of Gloucester was still a favorite of the 
populace, despite his bad administration. He had 
set James I. (Stuart) at liberty (1424), on condition of 
his recalling the Scots in the service of the king of 
France ; but James, after depriving the ambitious 
duke of Albany of his power and his life, had 
sent fresh succor to Cliarles VII., and even invaded 
England, when he fell beneath the vengeance of his 
barons. The duke of Gloucester, since the death of 



Fifth Epoch. 419 

his brother, the cluko of Bedford, was foiled in all his 
undertakings on tlie Continent. AVithdrawn from 
affairs through the influence of his uncle, the cardi- 
nal of Winchester, he died soon after in prison. 
The English called him the "good duke," perhaps 
because of his hatred for France. The loss of Nor- 
mandy (1450) augmented the English discontent and 
their contempt for the government. In vain the 
brave Talbot was recalled from Ireland to save 
Guienne; the "Achilles of England " was defeated 
and left dead on the plains of Castillon (1453). 

The Hundred Years' War w^as over. Of all their 
conquests on the Continent the English retained 
only Calais. So disastrous an end to so brilliant a 
series of successes could not but bring the House of 
Lancaster into ill repute. De la Pole, Earl of Suf- 
folk, Henry's prime minister, was accused of treason, 
and perished a victim to the popular indignation. 
An Irish adventurer, called Jack Cade (MacQuade), 
pretending to be Mortimer, cousin of the duke of 
York, appeared at Blackheath at the head of twenty 
thousand insurgents, and made known the grievances 
of the men of Kent. The king soon after went in 
pursuit of Cade with fifteen thousand men, but the 
adventurer put the royal troops to flight. He was 
able to occupy London for several days (1450), but 
shortly afterwards his adherents dispersed and he 
w^as slain by an esquire at Lewes. The occasion 
seemed favorable to Eichard, Duke of York, to assert 
his claims to the crown through his mother, heiress 
of the duke of Clarence. As the House of York bore 
a white rose on its escutcheon and the House of Lan- 
caster a red one, the civil war was known as the War 
of the Eoses. England, in its turn, was about to 



420 History of the Middle Ages. ^ 

become tlie theatre of a bitter struggle at the very 
time tliat James II. (Stuart), the son and successor of 
James L, was prei^aring to avenge the outrages in- 
llicted upon his father and the Scots. 

France, on the contrary, in consequence of her 
opposition to foreigners, was united and powerful 
under the wise rule of her victorious king. Feared 
by her neighbors, she could repair in peace the evils 
she had undergone by invasion. It was not so easy, 
however, to remedy the harm done Christian Europe 
by this long rivalry, that impaired the influence of 
the two mightiest nations of the time, and had even 
led them to favor the scandals of the great schism 
and to disregard the progress of the Ottoman Turks, 



CHAPTER III. 

GERMANY, SWITZERLAND, AND ITALY. 

The imperial power, divided by tlie multiplicatioa of iinme- 
diate fiefs, and almost annihilated bythegreal interregnum, 
can no longer be restored except by princes endowed with 
rich appanages. Three families especially strive for their 
own profit to enhance the power of the Germanic crown, 
which at last falls to the House of Austria; But Switzerland 
frees itself from this house and from the empire. In Italy 
the title of Eniperor of the West is a bugbear for some, and 
, for others a thing of the past ; several republics and many 
independent monarchies are founded there. 

Sec. 1. Germany; tlie Three Imperial Families, 

Rudolph of Hapsburg (1273-1291) ; House of 
Austria, — During this troul)led period, -wlien the 
European nations were undergoing countless humilia- 
tions, the Romano-Germanic empire and the Papacy, 



Fifth Epoch, 421 

the tY\'0 supreme powers, and both elective, were pass- 
ing through simikir experiences. A long yacancy 
of the Holy See corresponded to the great interreg- 
num. Then a holy pope, Gregory X. (1271-1270), 
consoled the Church, while a great emperor, Iludolph 
of Hapsburg (1273-1291), tried to restore the empire. 
One of the electors designated by the others to 
choose an emperor pronounced in favor of Rudolph, 
Count of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, and Landgrave 
of Upper Alsace (1273). He was fifty-five years of 
age, poor in lands, but blessed with three sons and 
SIX daughters. He was engaged in an assault on the 
city of Baslo when informed of his election. It is 
related of him that once, as he w\as riding in the 
mountains, he overtook a j^riest carrying the A'iati- 
cum to a dying person. He alighted from his horse 
and made the goriest take his place, while he on foot 
followed his God to the poor cabin of the dying man. 
He refused the priest's offer to return the horse, say- 
ing : ^' God forbid that I should mount a horse that 
has borne the King of kings." Setting out at once 
for Aix-la-Chapelle to be crowned, he required the 
oath of allegiance. As he had no sceptre in his 
hand, he took the cross from the altar, saying, 
*' This sacred sign is better than a sceptre," and the 
vassals were obliged to swear on the cross. One of 
his daughters he gave in marriage to Louis of Ba- 
varia, Count Palatine, and another to the duke of 
Saxony. He absolutely forbade private wars. The 
castles of the refractory lords were demolished. *^ I 
was not raised to the throne to hide myself," said 
the intrepid Rudolph. He restored public tranquil- 
lity in Germany. In the Council of Lyons, and in an 
interview with Pope Gregory X., he cemented the 



422 History of the Middle Ages. 

union between the Papacy and the empire. But he 
would not undertake a journey to Italy, even to re- 
ceive the imperial crown at Eome, so much did he 
fear the intrigues and misunderstand the cliaractcr 
of the Italians. 

This prince had a dangerous enemy beyond the 
mountains. Ottocar II. (1253-1278), King of Bohe- 
mia, master of Austria, Styria, Cariuthia, and Car- 
niola, insolently protested against the election of 
Rudolph. Put under the ban of the empire and 
vanquished, the proud Ottocar was forced to give up 
his acquisitions, except Bohemia and Moravia. Two 
years later he again took arms, but was utterly 
beaten at Marchfeld, and fell pierced with seventeen 
mortal wounds (1278). The emperor bestowed one 
of his daughters in marriage on Ottocar's heir, and 
then gave Austria and the surrounding countries to 
his eldest son, Albert. This was the beginning of 
the i'>owerful House of Austria. 

On Eudolph's death (1291) the electors set aside 
his son for Adolpli of Nassau, a petty prince, who 
trafficked rather than reigned, though he had not 
succeeded in enriching his family. Deposed by the 
diet, he was slain (1298) by Albert of Austria, who 
took his place on the throne, after buying the suf- 
frages of all the electors. These last soon had cause 
to wish they had been more honest in the election. 
Albert was selfish and violent ; he sought to indem- 
nify himself by new domains, and only at a great 
cost of men and money could he be restricted to his 
hereditary possessions of Austria and Switzerland. 
But the latter country was already tired of the Haps- 
burgs, and sought to free itself. Albert I. was assas- 
sinated by his own nephew, John of Suabia, as he 



Fifth Epoch. 423 

was crossing the Renss, at the foot of the heights on 
which stood the castle of Hapsburg (1308). 

Houses of Wittelsbach (1314-1410) axd Lux- 
EMBOUiiG (1308-1437). — Although detesting the par- 
ricide, the electors took care not to choose one of 
Albert's six sons ; the count of Luxembourg was 
elected under the name of Henry VII. (1308-1313). 
Like Rudolph of Hapsburg, this petty prince en- 
riched his family by endowing it with an hereditary 
kingdom ; and Bohemia became for more than a cen- 
tury the support of the Luxembourgs. But Henry 
VII., without the prudence of Rudolph, threw him- 
self into Italy in the midst of discontented Guelphs 
and ambitious Ghibelines who had not seen an em- 
peror for sixty years. By his visit to Italy he obtained 
the imperial crown, but lost his honor and his life 
(1313). His son John, King of Bohemia, who after- 
wards fell at Crecy, dreaming only of mighty deeds of 
arms, and caring little to be emperor, left the Ger- 
manic sceptre to the contention of two eager rivals, 
Frederick the Handsome and Louis of Bavaria. The 
former was a son of Albert of Austria, and was 
backed by his brothers and by powerful lords. 
Everything seemed to be against Louis, who was the 
youngest of the electoral house of Wittelsbach — even 
his eldest brother, Rudolph, Count Palatine of the 
Rhine. But he was brave and made many friends ; 
he favored the Swiss cantons, which fought for him ; 
soon the king of Bohemia declared for him, and 
finally the victory of Miihldorf (1322) ruined the 
Austrian party. Frederick and one of his brothers 
were prisoners ; Louis V. (1314-1347), recognized as 
emperor, exercised all the imperial rights. All at 
once there appeared posted on the doors of the 



424 History of the Middle Ages. 

church of Avignon a pontifical mandate prohibiting 
Louis from any act of authority until he had pre- 
sented himself before the pope, that his election 
might be examined and his cause judged. This ex- 
action of John XXII. was not without precedents, 
and Avas intended to prevent new wars ; Louis of 
Bavaria himself did not decline the cognizance of a 
tribunal of peace. But affairs soon assumed another 
face. Turbulent spirits conjured up clouds. The pope 
excommunicated, then deposed, Louis ; the latter, 
after a reconciliation with his rival, made him his 
colleague and passed into Italy, where he risked his 
cause by selling principalities, sanctioning usurpa- 
tions, and creating an anti-poi^e (1327). 

Louis of Bavaria, supported by his electors, for 
twenty years defied the thunders of Avignon, the 
leagues formed against him within Germany and 
without, and even the attacks of his old ally, King 
John of Bohemia, who, though now blind, had lost 
nothing of his warlike spirit. Being struck with 
apoplexy while hunting (1347), Louis V. left the 
field open to various aspirants. His family stood 
a?ide. Half a century later (1400) a AYittelsbach, 
Iiobert, the Count Palatine, great-grandnephew of 
Louis, claimed the imperial dignity and felt its 
grievous weight. Before and after Eobert the 
princes of Luxembourg, descendants of Henry VII., 
were also unfortunate enough to wear the imperial 
crown. 

The Goldei^ Bull (1356) ; Charles IV. ais'd 
ins Two Sons (1349-1437).— One year before the 
death of Louis V. several electors had hurriedly en- 
throned Charles of Luxembourg, son of John the 
Blind. He was not recognized, however, until three 



Fifth Epoch, 425 

years later, when liis comjietitors had retired. Charles 
IV. showed great deference to the court of Avignon 
and a distrust of the Italians, and this last was espe- 
cially displayed in his reserve toward the Eomans 
when he went to be crowned in their city, so long de- 
serted by the popes ; he entered Rome in the garb of 
a pilgrim and remained but one day. It is not right 
to blame him because he loved his family, enriched 
his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia, endowed Prague, 
his capital, with superb palaces, an archiepiscopal 
see, and a flourishing university. Charles loved sci- 
ence and letters ; he encouraged the professors and 
their students by his p)resence at their lessons and 
theological tilts ; he also congratulated Petrarch, the 
great poet of the age. Still it must be admitted with 
the Germans that during his reign '' the Germanic 
eagle lost many of its feathers." The kingdom of 
Aries was severed from the empn-e for the emolument 
of the first dauphin of France (later King Charles 
v.), a nephew of the emperor. In Italy the regal 
rights were alienated. 1 In Germany the '^ Golden 
Bull," drawn up, it is said, by the Italian jurist Bar- 
toli and promulgated by Charles lY. in the diet of 
Metz (1356), sanctioned the independence of the 
great vassals at the expense of the crown. The con- 
stitutive law called the '' Golden Bull," because 
every copy bore a golden seal, reduced the number of 
electors to seven — the three archbishops of Cologne, 
Mayence, and Treves, the king of Bohemia, the 
duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, and 
the count palatine of the Rhine. The electoral ter- 
ritories Avere declared indivisible, the persons of the 
electors inviolable, their sentences irrevocable. They 
were to elect the emperor at Frankfort by plurality 



42G History of the Mibdle Ages, 

of votes. Each of the electors received a i^ompous 
title of the function he was to perform at the coro- 
nation. They could convene witliout the consent of 
the prince, to resist, to judge, and to depose him. 

Charles IV. was elector as king of Bohemia, his 
3'oungest son, Sigismund, as margrave of Branden- 
burg. To secure the empire to "Wcnceslaus, or "Wenzcl, 
his eldest son, the heir of Bohemia, Charles lavished 
one hundred thousand florins on the five other elec- 
tors. AYenccslaus was made emperor, but he ren- 
dered himself so contemptible as to be deposed in 
accordance with the provisions of his father's *'■' Golden 
Bull." Bohemia, that privileged land, but infected 
with heresy and bleeding with a savage war, might 
impute its woes to that very University of Prague 
which its founder had so royally favored. To such a 
pass had come the work of Charlos IV. 

Wcnceslaus (1378-1400) earned an evil fame by 
having tolerated, and even sanctioned, private wars in 
Germany, dis2')layed shameless licentiousness in Bo- 
hemia, martyred St. John Nejoomuk (Nejiomucen), 
and contributed to render this epoch one of the most 
lamentable in history. John Nepomuk, a learned 
canon of Prague, was the empress's confessor. In 
his folly Wcnceslaus insisted that the holy priest 
should make known to him the most inviolable of 
secrets, and for this end employed promises, en- 
treaties, and threats. The inflexible confessor was 
hurled from a bridge into the Moldau ; but Heaven 
honored the martyr of the seal of confession by sig- 
nal miracles (1393). Bohemia bore the yoke of a 
sottish and cruel king ; but the electors of the em- 
pire cculd depose him, which four of them did 
(1400). They elected the palatine, Eobert of Ba- 



Fifth Epoch. 427 

Taria, who, beaten in Italy and ill-obeyed in Germany, 
died of grief (1410). After liim there were three 
emperors instead of two : Wenceslans, King-elector 
of Bohemia, had his vote and his i^arty ; his brother 
Sigismund, Margrave -elector of Brandenburg and 
King of Hungary, had three votes ; their cousin- 
german, Josse of Moravia, had the remaining votes. 
At that very time there were likewise three popes. 
A fratricidal war was about to blaze out in Ger- 
many when Josse died. Wenceslans transferred his 
rights to his brother, who then united all the suf- 
frages (1411). Civil war was averted, but in its 
place there was a religious war. 

Wak of the Hussites (1416-1434), Taborites, 
AND Calixtixes ; THE Emperor Sigismu^td (1411- 
1437). — Unity was restored to the empire in the j)er- 
son of Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg, King 
of Hungary, and heir presumptive of Bohemia. 
Wholly different from his brother, he employed his 
great power to re-establish unity in the Church. He 
gave his aid to assembling the General Council of 
Constance, which healed the schism. But the 
punishment which the council, wdth the assent of 
Sigismund, inflicted on John Huss and Jerome of 
Prague aroused a deadly hatred amongst many of the 
Bohemians for the Church, the Germans, and par- 
ticularly for the emperor. The sectaries openly 
preached heresy, despoiled the clergy, and im- 
periously demanded communion under botli kinds 
for the laity. Ziska the One-eyed, a veteran soldier 
and adventurer, led the heretics and organized them 
into battalions. They took position on a mountain 
near Prague, and there built a city wdiich they 
called Tabor, styling themselves Taborites, in oppo- 



428 History of the Middle Ages. 

sition to Catholics, who were Philistines, Idumeans, 
Moabites. They soon fell upon Prague ; the burgo- 
master and thirteen senators were thrown out of the 
castle windows and received on the upturned points 
of swords ; priests and monks were everywhere mas- 
sacred, and more than five hundred and fifty churches 
were burned down. At this news Wenceslaus went 
mad, and died uttering yells of terror (1419). Sigis- 
mund was personally hated by the Taborites, so that 
his accession to the throne of Bohemia only redoubled 
their wrath. Ziska routed him at Deutschbrod. Then 
he oifercd the crown of Bohemia to King Jagellon 
of Poland ; but the latter, only just converted from 
paganism, rei3elled the heretic with horror. Ziska 
died soon after (1424). Discord then crept in 
amongst the sectaries. They split into four parties, 
the most fanatical of which maintained the doctrines 
of the Taborites and chose as leader Procopius Eaza. 
He gained three great victories over the Catholic 
crusaders and the imperialists. The Council of 
Basle granted the use of the chalice to the most 
moderate of the Bohemians, and thus rallied them 
to the Catholic cause. These Calixtines, as they 
were called, took it upon themselves to vanquish 
their former brethren, which they did at Boehmisch- 
brod. '' Only Bohemians can beat Bohemians," Sigis- 
mund had said. This horrible war was ended by the 
peace of Iglau (1434). 

Sigismund of Luxembourg barely survived this 
treaty. Although the last prince of his line, three 
present reigning families owe their fortune to him. 
He gave Saxony to Frederick the Warlike, scion of the 
electors and kings of Saxony. Brandenburg he 
ceded to Frederick of Hohenzollern, the ancestor of 



Fifth Epoch, 429 

the present emperor of Germany. He wedded his 
daughter to Albert V., the head of the House of 
Austria. Albert succeeded him in the thrones of 
Bohemia and Hungary (1437), and the following 
year received the imperial crown as Albert II. From 
that time the House of Austria has more or less hap- 
pily held possession of the Germanic empire until 
the Seven Weeks' War (1866) in our own day. 

Ketur^ of the Empire to Austria. — For one 
hundred and thirty years the hated memory of Albert 
L, the great- great-grandfather of Albert II., had ex- 
cluded the dukes of Austria from the imperial throne 
and from the original possessions of the family in 
Switzerland. There they had sustained reverse upon 
reverse ; but a fortunate marriage had just given them 
more than adequate compensation. Such was to be 
the oft-repeated good-fortune of Austria, as expressed 
in the famous verses.* 

Albert II., the Magnanimous, resolutely opposed 
the private wars. Despite the reluctance of many, 
the German lords, in the diet of Nuremberg, at last 
sanctioned the division of the empire into six circuits, 
in each of which an independent and powerful judge 
was charged to maintain the public peace. The 
emperor was preparing to attack the Turks with his 
whole force when he died in the second year of his 
reign (1439). A few months later his posthumous 
son inherited his kingdom, but the empire fell to his 
cousin, Frederick III., who, in a long reign (1440- 
1493), effected more than one reform in Germany and 
secured the crown to his descendants. 

* Bella gerant alii : tti, felix Austria, nuhe; 
Nam, qu(z Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus. 



430 History of tub Middle Ages, 

Sec. 2. Liberation of Switzerland (1307-1450). 

OitiGiiq- OF Switzerland ; Oppressiox. — If we 
were to go back to the remotest origin of Switzerland, 
called Helvetia by the liomans, we should have to 
consider some of the peculiarities of its most ancient 
inhabitants, whose dwellings and towns were built in 
the midst of lakes and rested on piles. Many curious 
remains of these ancient "lake-dwellers" are con- 
stantly recovered from the waters. We should 
then be obliged to speak of the ndvetians, the 
Eomans, the barbarians of the different empires, 
and the great feudatories who had swayed the 
country since the beginning of historic times. Swit- 
zerland's history begins with the last epoch of the 
Middle Ages, at the jrreat interregnum, when Suabia 
was broken uj^ and the fiefs dismembered that had 
been united under the illustrious House of Hohen- 
staufen. 

On the fall of that house (12G8) all its vassals 
«wore immediate fealty to the emperor. The ambi- 
tious counts of Wiirtemberg improved this freedom 
to extend their dominion in the north. In the 
region of lakes and wooded mountains which lies at 
the south, a host of petty lords, bishops, abbots, and a 
few imperial cities and forest cantons, jealously pre- 
served their independence, saving the homage and 
slight tribute they paid the emperor, who was their 
only suzerain. Among these potty Swiss lords was 
the count of Hapsburg, Rudolph, whose virtues had 
caused him to be chosen magistrate by several of the 
neighboring lords and cities, and by the peasants of 
the three forest cantons of Schwytz, Uri, and Unter- 
waldcn. Raised to the empire, Rudolph continued 



Fifth Epoch. 431 

to respect the liberty of those who had been his 
clients. But times changed after his death. His 
son Albert, driven from the throne, was not satisfied 
with Austria ; he persisted in regarding the clients 
of his family as subjects. On becoming emperor, 
and his projects of territorial aggrandizement failing 
in Bohemia, he turned to Switzerland. He sent 
bailiffs thither, and their vexatious measures in- 
censed the Swiss, who clamored for their liberties 
and shook off the Austrian yoke. 

But history has been unwillingly forced to leave 
to poesy the solemn and mysterious oath of Kutli ; 
William Tell's shooting the apple placed on his son's 
head, and the piercing the heart of the tyrant Gess- 
ler by an arrow from the bow of the same skilful 
archer. But there is no doubt of the tragic death of 
Albert (1308), the cruel vengeance wreaked by his 
widow and sons, the league of the primitive cantons, 
and their heroic victories. 

Victories of Morgartek (1315), Sempach 
(138G), AND N^FELS (1389).— The Emperor Louis 
of Bavaria had sanctioned the league and guaran- 
teed the liberties of the three forest cantons ; the 
latter, in return, supported Louis against his rival, 
Frederick the Handsome, son of Albert of Austria. 
In revenge Frederick sent his brother, Leopold 
the Glorious, into Switzerland at the head of a 
noble army whose cavalry glittered with steel 
(1315). The Austrian warriors came supplied with 
ropes to bind the hapless peasants and drag them away 
captive from their country. Proudly the Austrians 
advanced, expecting no danger; they had already 
entered the defile of Morgarten, that opens into the 
canton of Schwytz, when lo ! great masses of rock 



432 UlSTOIZY OF THE MiDDLE AgES. ) 

came bounding and crashing down the sides of the 
gap amongst the cavahy, Avhich gave way and car- 
ried disorder into tlie ranks of the infantry. Then 
the peasants, scrambling down from the heights, 
charged the enemy with their halberds and utterly 
overcame them. Though but thirteen hundred 
and fifty strong, they had, by fervent prayer, enlisted 
God on their side. Leopold hastened to make peace ; 
and the three forest cantons, with the sanction of 
the Emjjeror Louis, substituted a perpetual union 
for the league they had sworn at Brunnen seven 
years before. 

Lucerne joined the league in 133,2 ; Zurich, Glaris, 
and Zug in 1352 ; the following \q\xv the accession 
of Berne swelled the number to eight, which was not 
exceeded till after the close of mediaeval times, when 
it reached thirteen, and in our days twenty-two. 
Switzerland derives its name from the canton of 
Schwytz, in which the battle of Morgarten was won, 
and which cemented the primitive confederation. 

The dukes of Austria beheld with no little vexa- 
tion the growth of a confederation vrhich compro- 
mised their power in Switzerland, Suabia, and the 
Tyrol. At the same time the confederates took 
advantage of the difficulties which Wenceslaus of 
Bohemia Avas causing Austria by his connivance at 
the outrages of the Hussites. At last Leopold the 
Valiant, a nephew of the beaten general of Mor- 
garten, summoned the nobility of Upper Germany 
to arms. Many lords responded to this summons 
and sent their challenges to the Swiss peasants. As 
soon as Leopold had assembled four thousand knights 
he o])ened the campaign by attacking fourteen hun- 
dred confederates near Sempach (Lucerne). The 



Fifth Epoch. 433 

kniglits on foot formed a square, presenting an im- 
penetrable front of spears. The Swiss, badly armed, 
in vain attempted to break through. One of them 
cried out : " Follow me ; but look after my wife and 
children." Then, rushing forward, he gathered the 
spears, and, pressing them together against his own 
breast, opened a passage into the square for his com- 
rades. The Swiss rush in, and with their massive 
clubs make a horrible carnage among their enemies. 
Leopold and nearly seven hundred lords are slain ; 
the rest flee. The victors then bear away the muti- 
lated corpse of their heroic comrade ; his name was 
Arnold Winkelried (1386). 

Three years later another victory gained over the 
Austrians near the village of N^fels (Glaris) secured 
the independence of the confederation, and forced 
Duke Albert III. to sign the peace of Zurich (1389). 

Teial akd Liberation. — Invincible wdiile united 
against outside enemies, the eight cantons did not 
reflect that discord would recall danger and compro- 
mise their liberty. Ambition impelled Zurich to a 
conquest displeasing to Schwytz. The six other 
cantons having declared for Schwytz, Zurich made 
an alliance w^itli Austria, which was then represented 
by Frederick III. (1442). The latter eagerly employed 
twenty-four thousand Armagnacs, commanded by 
the dauphin of France. These adventurers, inured 
to fighting, saw sixteen hundred Swiss boldly ad- 
vancing to meet them, near Basle. The struggle 
b3gan ; the Swiss held their ground before the im- 
mense mass, and, though hewn down almost to a 
man, would not give way (1444). The dauphin 
thought it wise to conclude a peace with so un- 
querable a people. 



434 History of the IIiddle Ages. 

This Tvas a warning to tlie Swiss ; they remained 
united against Charles the Bold, and still later 
against Maximilian. In less than sixty years (1453- 
1513) they gained rich spoils, brilliant trophies, and 
neAV strength by the accession of five other cantons. 

Sec. 3. Italy : Strngyh of the Gueljjlis and Ghibelmcs ; 
EejmbUcs transformed into Principalities. 

The Guelpii Peoject ; Ghibelin-e Opposition ; 
THE SiciLiAi^ Vespehs (1282).— To withdraw Italy 
from a foreign yoke while acknowledging an hono- 
rary dependence upon the empire, to leave their 
privileges to every state, city, and class of citizens, 
was the truly national project of the Italian Guelphs 
in the thirteenth century, particularly during the 
long interregnum. Their sworn hatred of Frederick 
II. and the extinction of his race in Conradin were 
favorable to the policy of the young republics, the 
Pontifical States, and to Charles of Anjou. This 
latter had become king of Naples and Sicily after his 
defeat of Manfred, and was the head of the Guelph 
party in Italy. His influence w^as very great, and 
was felt in the cities of Tuscany, which were all 
Giielph excepting Pisa. He had numerous ad- 
herents in the north, as the family of Delia Torre at 
Milan, the marquis of Este at Ferrara, and the 
Venetian merchants themselves in their lagunes. 
Nevertheless, there were everywhere Italians who 
could not submit to the dominion of a foreign 
power in Italy, among these Matteo A^isconti of 
Milan, tlic Spinolas and the Dorias of Genoa, the 
marquis of Montfcrrat in Piedmont, and the White 
Guelphs at Florence. 



Fifth Epoch, 435 

Pope Gregory X. tried to reconcile the two jiarfcies ; 
and when Rudolph of Hapsburg appeared so gene- 
rous in his relations with him, the saintly pontiff 
thought the moment come for the formation of a 
great confederation of the Italian States under the 
presidency of the popes and the temporal direction 
of an imperial delegate. Such a plan would have 
secured the welfare of the peninsula, but it was 
not to be realized. 

Charles of Anjou, charged with the vicegerency in 
Central Italy, was hard and selfish, and detested for 
his cruelty even in his own dominions. John of 
Procida, formerly Manfred's physician, had been pre- 
sent at the execution of Conradin, when, picking up 
the young prince's glove, ho swore to avenge the 
Ilohenstaufens in the blood of their enemies. He 
conspired with Pedro of Aragon, who claimed the 
throne of Naples on account of his marriage to the 
daughter and heiress of Manfred, and then returned 
to Sicily, laid his plans with the most profound 
secrecy, and bided his time. On Easter Monday, 
1282, at the sound of the vesper-bell, the signal was 
given near Palermo ; the Sicilians fell upon the king's 
men, upon all who mispronounced the word ciceri — 
that is, upon all the French. One only was spared on 
account of his virtues. This massacre is known as 
the Sicilian Vespers. On learning the frightful news 
Charles was thunderstruck. *' God ! " he cried, 
*^ since you have raised me so suddenly, let me fall 
only by degrees." He undertook to wreak vengeance 
on the Sicilians, and was supported by the pope, but 
Pedro of Aragon entered the Sicilian waters and 
braved excommunication. Charles's fleet was burnt 
by the great Italian admiral, Eoger di Loria, his son 



43C JIiSTonr of the Middle Ages. 

taken, and lie himself died without 
(12S5). 

The Gliibelino party's triumph Avas not confined 
to Sicily. For five years the Viscontis ruled in 
Milan. AVilliam of Montferrat extended his dominion 
in Liguria. The lords again raised their heads. Pisa 
threatened Florence and attempted to subdue all Sar- 
dinia. But Genoa, in concert with Florence, hum- 
bled the Ghibeline city by blocking up its port and 
destroying its fleet at Meloria (1284). This was the 
beginning of a Guelph reaction. 

EEACTIOiq" OF THE GUELPHS ; liOBERT OF AnJOU 

(1309-1343).— The triumph of the Ghibehnes was 
again disturbed by the momentary exj^ulsion of the 
Viscontis, by the arrival of Charles of Valois in Italy, 
and by the conflict of parties in Florence. So much 
had the Florentines learned to distrust their nobles 
that no function was confided to them until they 
had been admitted to the honor of the plebeian 
order ! Certain Guelphs who leaned to the Ohibe- 
lines were equally distrusted. These White Ghibe- 
lines, as they were called, were soon banished. 

Other eyents favored the Guelphs. Pedro of Ara- 
gon, being called to the throne of his country, 
restored Sicily to Charles ; but the Sicilians, resent- 
ing the former cruelty of the French, crowned Fre- 
derick, third son of Pedro. James, the second son of 
Pedro, declared war against his brother. Frederick, 
however, would not be driven out of Sicily, where his 
posterity continued to reign for a century. 

The passage of Henry VII. through Italy (1310) 
compromised the influence of the Guelphs in certain 
respects. Matteo Visconti, the '' captain of the peo- 
ple," returned to Milan in triumph. Castruccio 



FiFTu Epoch. 43? 

Castracani, a famous captain, turned Lucca, his na- 
tive place, into a constant menace for the neighbor- 
ing Guelph cities. At Verona, Cane della Scala, a 
great soldier, protected artists, poets, and exiles. 
Dante Alighieri sought refuge with him, like other 
illustrious Florentines banished on account of their 
political opinions. The Guelphs, however, soon re- 
covered their strength. 

Charles II. dying, his second son, Robert, Avas pro- 
claimed king, to the exclusion of the older branch 
which reigned in Hungary. The poj^es were residing 
in France, and appointed the king of K'aples imperial 
vicar in the States of the Church. "With this title 
Eobert not only exercised the temporal power in 
Rome but the right of protection throughout Cen- 
tral Italy. He resolved to take advantage of his un- 
usual authority to recover Sicily, but he was foiled ; 
the Sicilians were too brave, the Aragonian princes 
too firm, and Robert too little of a warrior. Yet it 
must be said in favor of this king that he governed 
his states and those of the pope wisely, and he was 
an enlightened patron of the arts and of men of 
genius. At this time the poet Petrarch under- 
w^ent a brilliant examination and was awarded the 
honors of a triumph ; he was then conducted to the 
Capitol and received the laurel crown from the 
Senate of the Eternal City. 

The unfortunate expedition of the Emperor Louis 
V. to Rome, and the pacific intervention of John of 
Bohemia in Upper Italy, scarcely impaired the influ- 
ence of King Robert. 

Violent Retaliation of the Ghibelines ; the 
ViscoxTis. — Upon the death of Robert his grand- 
daughter Joanna was crowned queen of Na2)les. She 



438 History of tub Middle Ages, 

was the widow of licr cousin, Andrew of Hungary, 
whose assassination was publicly charged to her. Her 
conduct and the struggles of rivals for the throne 
plunged the kingdom into an abyss of woes for forty 
years. 

In the centre and north of Italy excessive license 
aroused tyranny or brought on despotism. The wis- 
dom and firmness of the great Cardinal Albornoz 
saved Rome from the application of Eienzi's Utopian 
ideas. But in Lombardy, on the other hand, the 
two Viscontis, Barnabo and Galeazzo, were ignoble 
tyrants. Galeazzo, before entering Pavia, which 
surrendered to him, swore to observe the articles of 
capitulation, but, once in, declared himself, as an 
imperial delegate, bound by nothing ; hence ho 
exiled, he put to death, he imprisoned. His brother 
Barnabo (1355-1385) regulated the punishment of 
state crimes as follows : ** The executioner shall be2:in 
by breaking the bones of the criminal, tearing the skin 
from his feet, making him drink water mixed with 
lime and yinegar ; . then every two days successively 
the criminal's nose, hands, and feet shall be cut olf ; 
not till the forty-first day shall the red-hot pincers 
be employed, and, if necessary, he shall be despatched 
by the rack." Could it be a state crime to resist 
such a monster ? To slay a wild boar was punish- 
able with death by strangulation, unless, indeed, an 
exorbitant fine was paid. In this way many of the 
potentates ruled their dominions. A crusade was 
jireached against Galeazzo Yisconti, and at last he 
and his two sons were caught in a snare laid by his 
nephew Gian Galeazzo. The latter then purchased 
the title of duke from the Emperor "Wenceslaus, and 
governed ^lilan (1385-1-10;^) according to the usual 



Fifth Epoch, 439 

policy of the Visconti family, which was always dis- 
tinguished for its opposition to French influence in 
Italy. The Viscontis appropriated Parma and ex- 
pelled the Guelph chief Giberto Correggio and his 
adherents ; they drove the followers of the family of 
Delia Scala from Verona ; they annihilated the re- 
public of Pavia. But they were checked in the west 
by John Palaeologus, Marquis of Montferrat, and in 
the east by the family of Este, lords of Ferrara, the 
Gonzagas of Mantua, and by the republic of Venice, 
which was gaining territory on the mainland. No- 
thing was yet heard in Italy of the great House of 
Savoy, although it already had a foothold on the 
Italian side of the mountains, and only awaited a 
favorable opportunity of taking part in the civil w^ars 
that for so long a time devastated the beautiful land 
of Italy. 

PiYALRY 0? Maritime Cities; Ascexdekcy of 
Vexice. — The Crusades, by increasing commercial 
relations between the different parts of the Mediter- 
ranean, had enriched several maritime cities of Italy, 
especially Pisa, Genoa, Venice. The Ghibeline Pisa 
was very prosperous in the middle of the thirteenth 
century, and roused the jealousy of her neighbor, 
Florence, and her rival, Genoa. A single battle suf- 
ficed to ruin her navy and to decimate her popula- 
tion. '' If 3^ou would see Pisa, go to Genoa," was the 
saying after the defeat of Meloria. Genoa, now hav- 
ing no rival in the waters of the West, extended her 
sway among the ports of the Levant, where she 
possessed Galata, a suburb of Constantinople ; Kaffa, 
w^hich she bought from tlie khans of the Crimea ; 
and Azof, north of the Black Sea. The fall of the 
Latin empire and the restoration of the Greeks at 



440 History of the Middle Ages. 

Byzantium had equally favored Genoa and injured 
Venice. The first war of twenty-five years (1257-1282) 
armed these two rival cities against one another and 
caused irreparable loss to both. The following cen- 
tury a war between the two cities opened on the 
Black Sea (1348), and became terrible in the three 
closing years (1370-1382). Genoa occupied the isles of 
Mitylene (Lesbos) and Chios (Scio) in the Archi- 
pelago, and the fortress of Famagusta in Cyprus ; 
she assisted the Greek emperors and formed a coali- 
tion against Venice. The hitter's allies attacked 
Genoa by land, while a Venetian fleet swept the 
Genoese off the Tyrrhenian Sea. However, the two 
brothers Paganino and Lucian Doria soon collected 
a formidable squadron, entered the Adriatic, and 
challenged the Venetian admiral, Pisani, in the road- 
stead of Pol a. Both sides fought desperately. The 
Genoese admiral, Lucian Doria, was slain by Pisani ; 
but this mishap did not prevent the Genoese from 
gaining a signal victory. The Venetians revenged 
their defeat on the brave Pisani, whom they threw 
into a dungeon. 

Owing to this ill-advised revenge of the Venetians 
the new Genoese admiral, Pietro Doria, seized all the 
coast and sailed for Venice, which he besieged by 
posting himself at Chioggia, at the entrance of the 
lagunes, while his ally, Francis Carrara, lord of 
Padua, furrowed the lagunes with light barks. Ven- 
ice was lost had her enemies been more on the alert. 
This delay gave the Venetians time to release Pisani, 
Avho was not dismayed at the posture of affairs. 
After a solemn Mass Pisani again set afloat several 
shattered vessels, encouraged his countrymen, and, 
sailing out into the open sea, besieged the Genoese in 



Fifth Epoch. 441 

Cliioggia, secured tlic entrance of the lagunes, and 
so hampered the enemy that they fell a prey to the 
hori'ors of famine. The Genoese finally surrendered 
(1380) at discretion, with nineteen galleys and more 
than four thousand men. The treaty of Turin se- 
cured the ascendency of Venice (1382). 

Genoa, rent by its factions, frequently succumbed 
for a time to the rule of some lord, but no one could 
be found able to keep her in subjection. Charles 
YI. of France sent her the brave Marshal Bouci- 
caut, but she soon grew weary of him and expelled 
him. Venice, on the contrary, yearly strengthened 
her aristocratic government ; the doge became at last 
no more than a mere clerk of the great council, es- 
pecially after the failure of the doge Marino Faliero 
in his revolutionary attempt (1355), wdiich ended by 
his head rolling down the Giant's Staircase. The 
great council was then directed by ten nobles, and 
tliis Council of Ten was itself mysteriously watched 
over by three among them who had absolute power of 
life and death over all the citizens, and even their 
colleagues. These were the Three State Inquisitors. 
With so powerful a mainspring despotic Venice ex- 
tended her sway along the coasts and among the 
islands ; she gained a foothold, too, on the mainland, 
and was checked only by the enterprising dukes of 
Milan. 

Extixctio:n' of the Eepublics ; ItalIxVK Prin"ci- 
PALiTiES. — Florence long remained the bulwark of 
the Guelphs, a democratic republic, and the friend of 
arts and manufactures. But in the fifteenth century 
she let herself fall into the control of a family which 
had earned its great wealth by commerce. The 
Medici really reigned over the Florentines, and con- 



442 History of the Middle Ages. 

sequently over the Tuscans. The Gonzagas were 
unnoticed at the foot of the mountains, as also the 
counts of Savoy, who were continually encroaching 
on Montferrat. The death of Gian Galeazzo Vis- 
conti did not restore liberty to Milan. The two sons 
of this duke succeeded him with diverse fortunes. 
The younger dying without heirs, Milan expressed a 
desire for republican government, but one of the 
three foreign claimants for the ducal crown, Fran- 
cesco Sforza, with the helj) of the Venetians, had 
himself made duke (1450). Under the Sforza fa- 
mily the great Lombard city re;iiained a princijoality. 
Kome herself was threatened in her temj^oral inde- 
pendence by the Neapolitans. 

During this period Italy presents many scenes of 
horror, particularly the southern part, which was 
the most subject to foreign influences. During 
the hundred years following the death of Robert the 
Wise (1343-1443) occurred the scandals of Joanna 
I., the cruelties and joettiness of Charles III., the 
tyrannical puerilities of Ladislaus, and the political 
inconstancy of his sister, Joanna II. Much of the 
misery to which Italy was a prey at this time may be 
attributed to the Avant of combination among her 
independent states. Monarchy was brought into dis- 
repute by the shameful lives, the cowardice, and 
cruelty of its representatives. It was reserved to 
the unfortunate kingdom of Sicily to restore monar- 
chical unity as it had existed in the time of the 
Norman kings. The Aragonese branch of Sicily had 
been reunited to the eldest branch of Aragon by a 
marriage. All the family inheritance having fallen 
to Ferdinand of Castile (1412), his eldest son, Al- 
fonso the Magnanimou«, was adopted by .Joanna 11. 



Fifth Epoch. 443 

of ISTaples. He valiantly sustained his adoption, and 
transmitted the Two Sicilies to his son Ferdinand 
(1458). 

Italy then was, at the close of the mediaeval and 
opening of the modern age, divided into indofien- 
dent principalities, and every vestige of republics, 
Guelphs, and federative projects had vanislied. But 
on the news of the taking of Constantinople by the 
Turks Pope Nicholas V. brought about tlie treaty of 
Lodi, in which appeared the germ of a defensive 
federation. But what is most glaring in this treaty 
is the diversity of interests, the suspicious jealousy 
and insatiable ambition by which the Italian princes 
sacrificed the interests of the people and of the en- 
tire country to their own emolument. In the centre 
of the petty states the patrimony of St. Peter, which 
best preserved the republican ideas of the early 
Italian states, was the least exposed to the attacks 
of the neighboring princes, and thus the Papacy en- 
joyed full independence. 



CHAPTEE IV. 
SPAm— THE FIVE KIKGDOMS. 

This period is an unbroken series of intestine quarrels and 
struggles among the kingdoms. There is, however, a visible 
tendency towards unity in Spain, and the lofty destiny of 
Portugal rapidly becomes apparent. 

Respective Situatioi^ of the Fiye Kingdoms 
OF THE Penin^sula. — On the north the little king- 
dom of Navarre, seated on both slopes of the 
western Pyrenees, seemed doomed to oblivion amidst 



444 History of the Middle Ages, 

the great kingdoms that bounded it, or to become 
the inlieritance of some foreign sovereign. On tlie 
extinction of the national dynasty qf Aznar (1234) 
the house of the counts of Champagne liad been 
called by a matrimonial alliance to wear the crown 
of Navarre. Forty years later anotlier marriage 
transmitted this crown to the royal family of France. 
Thus Philip the Fair and his three sons were kings 
of Franco and Navarre (1274-1328). The Capetian 
branch of Evreuxthen inherited the throne, only to 
dishonor it under Charles the Bad (1349-1386) and 
to enhance it under Charles the Noble (138G-1425). 
The latter, unlike his father, left a wife his heiress, 
whose rights passed to two Aragonese princes, father 
and son, who disputed tlie kingdom by force of arms 
(1451). During this period the history of Navarre 
blends with that of France. 

At the foot of the eastern Pyrenees the kings of 
Aragon, hemmed in by powerful neighbors, at an 
early date braved the weaves, not even recoiling at 
crimes Avhen useful in their conquests of the Medi- 
terranean islands. They profited by the Sicilian Ves- 
pers to extend their power. Soon the violent annex- 
ation of the Balearic Isles, and repeated attempts 
upon Sardinia, Corsica, and Naples, enlarged the Ara- 
gonese possessions. 

Portugal engaged in agriculture, maritime con- 
quest, and the study of letters and sciences under 
King Diniz (1279-1325), the husband of St. Eliza- 
beth of Aragon. Recently enlarged on the soutli- 
ward by the conquest of Algarve, the kingdom also 
attained limits on the east which its enemies have 
not l)een able to vary. This country w\as destined by 
Providence to explore the Atlantic, little by little to 



Fifth Epoch. 445 

reconnoitre the African coast as far as the Cape of 
Good Hope, and thereby to open the route of the 
East Indies to navigators and missionaries. 

In Andalusia, at the southeast of tlie peninsula, 
the reduced kingdom of Granada was all that re- 
mained to the ]\Iohammedans of their former Spanish 
possessions. Surrounded by strongholds and Cas- 
tilian garrisons, the kings of Granada could not have 
held out in that fair land till 1492 had it not been 
for succor from Africa and the unfortunate dissen- 
sions which at that time prevailed over most of 
Christian Europe, and was rending the Christian 
kingdom of Spain, especially Castile. 

Castile ; Weak^tess of Royalty ; Alfonso XL 
(1312-1350). — By his inherited possessions and con- 
quests St. Ferdinand had secured to Castile the 
greater part of Spain, considerable revenues, and 
ports on all the coasts. But his son, Alfonso X., the 
AVise (1252-1284), aimed at the empire of Germany. 
He was a learned man, and we are indebted to him 
for the valuable astronomical Alphonsine Tables ; 
but he had not the requisite faculties for governing 
a turbulent country. In fact, he produced so much 
discontent that the people, grandees, and princes of 
the blood resolved to depose liim. To maintain his 
cause he asked aid of the Moors. Sancho the Brave, 
his second son, by ascending the throne (1284) 
against the rights of the infantes of la Cerda, the 
children of the eldest, involved himself in war with 
France at the very time when he had to repel the 
Moors of Granada, who had made a coalition with 
the Merinides of Morocco. Sancho triumphed over 
all his enemies, but his untimely death and the mi- 
nority of liis son again plunged Spain into the 



446 History of the Middle Ages. 

calamities of civil war. The young king, on attain- 
ing his majority, suddenly died (1312), leaving his 
crown to Alfonso XI., a child three years old. 
Troubles began again ; the grandees enriched them- 
selves at the expense of the king, and the Moors 
recovered some of the ground they had lost. 

At fourteen Alfonso eagerly seized the reins of 
statCj ordered the massacre of several princes, en- 
trusted his finances to a Jew and everything else to 
two favorites. Fresh revolts were about to break 
out when a formidable invasion of the ^Icrinides, 
instigated by Yusef, King of Granada, summoned 
the Castilian lords to Tarifa. There tlioy firmly 
withstood the Mussulmans till the arrival of Alfonso 
and the king of Portugal, who hastened at the head 
of their armies, accompanied by many warriors from 
Aragon, Navarre, and France (1340). Perceiving 
this brilliant army descending in perfect order to- 
wards the Rio Salado, the besiegers advanced to 
hinder it from crossing, but the Christians, swim- 
ming over, attacked the van of the enemy, while the 
garrison of Tarifa attacked the rear. The camp of 
the Merinides was carried by assault, and their king 
escaped to Africa. The infidels were everywhere 
routed, pursued, and it is said that two hundred 
thousand of them were slain, while the Christian 
army lost but twenty-five men ! The Castilian king 
would have derived greater advantage from this vic- 
tory had he not returned to his disorders and his 
burdensome taxes. He contented himself with the 
capture of Algeziras, and perished under the walls of 
Gibraltar (1350). 

Pedro the Cruel (1350-13G9) axd his Con"- 
TEMPORARiEs ; Inez de Castro axd Pedro THE 



Fifth Epocil 447 

Just (1357-1367).— Alfonso XL left ten children by 
Ills clandestine union with Leonora Guzman ; the 
eldest was Henry of Transtamarc. The only legiti- 
mate son of the king was Pedro the Cruel, a yeritable 
monster, who disgraced the throne by his inconti- 
nence, exactions, perfidy, and unheard-of cruelties. 
These cruelties were inflicted on private individuals, 
cities, princes of the blood, on Leonora Guzman, on 
a queen of Aragon in retirement at Castile, and on 
his innocent wife, Blanche de Bourbon. A prince 
of Granada, who had thrown himself on his clemency, 
saw the heads of seventeen of his attendants roll 
from their shoulders before he himself received his 
death-blow from the king's hand. A son who im- 
plored mercy for his aged father suffered death in 
return for his devotion. Vengeance finally descended 
upon his guilty head ; the Black Prince having de- 
serted Pedro, Du Guesclin contented himself with 
confronting the latter with his brother, Henry of 
Transtamare, who speedily avenged his mother, his 
four brothers, the princes, princesses, and all Castile, 
of which he^became king (1369). 

By an unfortunate coincidence the cruel king of 
Castile was surrounded by kings resembling himself. 
In ^N'avarre Charles 11. was justly branded with the 
surname Bad (1349-1386); in Aragon Pedro IV. 
deserved rather to be called the Cruel than the Cere- 
monious. During a reign of fifty-one years (1336- 
1387) the latter king violently wrested Minorca from a 
near kinsman and put him to death ; his own brothers 
he exiled, delivered up his venerable tutor to the 
executioner, and would have slain his eldest son but 
for the veto of the supreme judge of Aragon. His 
troubled reign was a forerunner of ruin to his race. 



448 JIisTORY OF THE Middle Ages. 

which became cxtmct in Spuin and >SicJly Aviili one of 
his sons (1410). 

In Portugal Alronso IV. (1325-1357), one of the 
yictors on the Salado, having given ear to three miser- 
able courtiers, had ordered Inez dc Castro, who was 
secretly married to tlie Infante Pedro, to be poniarded 
(1355). The latter, immediately revolting against his 
father, harshly reminded him that ho, too Inid rebell- 
ed against his own father, Diniz the Husbandman, 
and Father of his Country. Affonso died of grief. 
Pedro, on becoming king (1357), caused the hearts 
of the three murderers to be torn out before his 
eyes, producing at the same time certificates of 
his marriage with Inez ; then he exhumed the corpse 
of t-heir victim, clothed it with royal robes, and laid 
it in the sepulchre of kings. This act of rigorous 
justice was followed by another very different in ap- 
pearance, but not so in reality. A canon, having 
unintentionally killed a shoemaker, was condemned 
by his judges to exclusion from choir for one year. 
The shoemaker's son, thinking himself inadequately 
revenged, slew the canon. The king condemned the 
culprit not to make shoes for a whole year. The 
lesson was understood by the judges: they spared 
innocence, but were inexorable towards criminals, 
whoever they might be. Hence the avenger of Inez 
is called Pedro the Just. 

House of Tra^-stamake in Castile (1369), in 
Aragon (1412), IN" ISTayarre (1451). — Pedro the 
Cruel being dead, Henry 11. of Transtamare was 
acknowledged king by all the Castilians, but he was 
forced to defend his throne against a king of Portu- 
gal, a grandson of Alfonso XI., and against the 
dukes of Lancaster and York, who were sons-in-law 



Fifth Epoch. 44D 

of Pedro. Henry strengthened himself with the sup- 
port of France, secured ten years of happiness to his 
subjects, and merited the. surname of the Magnilicent 
(13G9-1379). Juan I., his son, worsted the English in 
Guienne and the duke of Lancaster in Spain, but was 
himself defeated and. nearly slain by the Portuguese 
on the day of Aljubarrota (1385). The domestic 
troubles of Castile, increased by this defeat, by the 
unexpected death of King Juan, and by the mi- 
nority of his son Henry III. ( 1390-1 -iOG), were par- 
tially allayed when the latter came to his majority. 
Unfortunately he died when only twenty-six, leaving 
his son, Juan II. (1408-1454), only one year old, as suc- 
cessor. The cortes (parliament) offered the crown to 
Henry's brother, Prince Ferdinand. '-'Behold your 
king and mine," said he to the deputies, pointing to 
his nephew's cradle ; "I am his guardian." In this 
capacity he gained two brilliant yictories over the 
Mohammedans of Granada. Being called, on account 
of his virtues, to the vacant throne of Arasron, Ferdi- 
nand the Just transferred the regency of Castile to the 
queen mother, an Englishwoman. She was given to 
drunkenness, and while she treated with the Moors 
she kept her son in such seclusion as to render 
him for ever incapable of reigning alone, so that the 
long reign of Juan II. was rather the reign of his 
favorite, Alvaro de Luna, a man of energy, who in- 
terposed as occasion required in the tumults arising 
among the Mussulmans against the Al)encerrages 
(Beni Serraj). He defeated Mohammed VII. on the 
Fig-tree Plain under the very walls of Granada. 
Despite the league of the grandees, the intrigues of 
the prince royal of the Asturias, the menaces of the 
neighboring kings, Alvaro retained the 2^0^'^'cr for 



450 HisiORY OF THE Middle Ages. 

thirty yeiirs till the day on which his master, giving 
way before the storm, sent him to execution. Mount- 
ing the scalfold, he cried out : " May tlie prince of 
the Asturias reward his faithful servants better than 
his father does ! " So saying, he respectfully bowed 
to the cross and presented his head to the axe (1453). 
By this stroke the feeble monarch broke his own scep- 
tre and died of grief the year following. Castile 
was to be still more unfortunate under his incapable 
son, Henry IV. ; but his daughter was to retrieve the 
blunders of her brother and the weakness of her 
father. She is known as Isabella the Catholic. 

The dynasty of Aragon becoming extinct with 
King Martin (1410), nine deputies of the provinces 
met at Saragossa to choose a king from the numerous 
aspirants. Having deliberated two years, the elec- 
tors, following the counsel of the great preacher and 
wonder-Avorkcr, St. A^inccnt Ferrer, their countryman, 
agreed to elect Ferdinand of Castile, the disinterested 
regent who had so inviolably guarded the rights of 
his nephew still in the cradle. Ferdinand the Just 
reigned in peace over Aragon, Sardinia, and Sicily 
(1412-141 G). He was succeeded by his son, Alfonso 
v., the Magnanimous (141G-1458), who became king 
of Naples also, both by riglit of adoption and by con- 
quest. Juan, younger son of Ferdinand, by wedding 
the daughter of Charles the Xoble (1425), ascended 
the throne of Navarre, which he refused to vacate on 
the death of his wife (1451). He soon inherited, as 
Juan II., the dominions of his brotlier Alfonso, who 
had no legitimate offspring. At his death (1479) he 
transmitted his crowns to his youngest son, Ferdi- 
nand flie Catholic, already king of Castile by his 
marriage with Isabella. The son of Jutm II. of Ara- 



Fifth Epoch. 451 

gon and the daughter of Juan II. of Castile, being 
united, were also to unite Spain into one kingdom, 
crush the Mussulman power of Granada, and aid 
Christopher Columbus to discover the l^ew World 
(1492). 

House of Ayisa in" Poktugal ; John" I. 
(1383-1433) AND THE Infante Henry ; Affonso 
THE African" (1438-1481).— Pedro the Just had 
left but one son of incontestable legitimacy, and he 
succeeded his father. This son dying without male 
issue, John, the grand master of Ayisa, one of 
Pedro's other sons, adroitly had himself proclaimed 
king by the cortes of Coimbra (1383). In the fol- 
lowing year the crown was secured to him against 
the claims of Castile by the victory of Aljubarrota, 
whose anniversary the Portuguese loilg celebrated 
with bacchanalian revelry. John of Avisa, in turn, 
broached his claims on Castile, but this was only to 
secure his own recognition and to trace the boundary 
between the two countries. This prince clearly un- 
derstood the destiny of Portugal. Ceuta, on the 
African coast, served as a refuge for Mussulman cor- 
sairs. The king of Portugal embarked with his 
three elder sons, took the place in six days, and, in 
a mosque transformed into a church, he dubbed his 
three sons knights (1415). 

One of these was Henry, grand master of the 
Order of Christ, under which denomination King 
Diniz had preserved the Templars of Portugal after 
reforming them. Possessing rich revenues, un- 
shackled by marriage, and ardently zealous for the 
glory of his country, Henry withdrew to the coast 
of Algarve, near Cape St. Vincent. There he built 
an observatory and a residence for himself and lus 



452 History of the Middle Ages, 

mathematicians, and founded a nautical academy. 
Thence vessels sailed for the discovery of unexplored 
coasts and unknown ishinds, and returned laden with 
novel commodities or enriched with the most im- 
portant discoveries and information. The Infante 
munificently rewarded navigators. His ardor was 
stimulated by Jean de Bcthencourt, a Norman noble- 
man, who had discovered the Canaries (1402) and 
had been appointed viceroy over them by Henry III. 
of Castile. The Portuguese navigators, in their 
turn, discovered the Madeira Islands (1418), the 
distant Azores (1432), and all the African coast as 
far as Sierra Leone. King John I. lived to enjoy 
the maritime success of his son ; he died only after 
a reign of fifty 3^ears (1433). Henry survived him 
thirty 3"ears, j)rosecuting his patriotic enterprises 
under his brother Edward and his nephew, Alfonso 
V. The latter passed over to Africa to effect con- 
quests and permanent settlements, to promote his 
uncle's work, and thus to merit the glorious surname 
of African. The reign of Affonso Y. (1438-1481) 
laid the foundation of prosperity for the three fol- 
lowing reigns (John II., Emmanuel, John III.), the 
cxi:)edition of Gama, immortalized by an epic poem, 
and the great apostolate of St. Francis Xavier. 



Fifth Epoch, 453 

CHAPTER V. 

SCANDINAVIA AND THE SLAVIC COUNTRIES. 

Northward three Scandinavian nations attempt to increase their 
real greatness by union. Eastward, while the Russians 
remain slaves of the Mongols, the Poles, united to the bap- 
tized Lithuanians, become powerful, and the Hungarians de- 
fend themselves against the Turks, who enthrall the other 
Slavs of the Danube. 

Sec. 1. The Three Scandinavian Kingdoms ; Margaret 
(1363-1412) and the Union of Calmar, 

EXTIXCTIO^" OF THE TlIREE EOYAL FAMILIES. — 

One of the most important events of this period is 
unquestionably the reunion of the three northern 
crowns on the head of one monarch. This event, 
naturally brought about by the extinction of the. 
reigning dynasties, and accom|)lished by a woman 
of genius, would have resulted in immense ad- 
vantages to all Scandinavians for a long while, if 
the weakness and vices of men had not set up ob- 
stacles. 

Norway, then at the summit of prosperity, was 
the first to witness the extinction of its national 
dynasty. Magnus YII., the Lawgiver (1263-1280), 
was succeeded by his two sons ; at the death of the 
j^oungest (1319) there remained but daughters. 
According to a law common to all the Scandina- 
vians, princesses could not inherit the crown, but 
could transmit it to a son. In virtue of this law a 
daughter of the last ]N"orwegian king, having married 
a Swedish prince, had her son, Magnus YIII., pro- 
claimed king of Norway. He was a child three years 
old, who had just mounted the throne of Sweden. 



454 History of the Middle Ages. 

Thus the Swedisli dynasty of the Folkungs took 
possession of two thrones. It was about to inherit 
a third, only to become extinct soon after. Magnus 
VIII., having attained his majority, governed liis 
two kingdoms with severity. His discontented sub- 
jects compelled him to share his power with his sons ; 
Haco VII. reigned in Norway, Eric XII. in Sweden. 
The untimely death of the latter restored to Magnus 
an authority of Avhich the Swedes were soon tired ; 
they imprisoned their king, and offered his crown 
first to his son, Haco, King of Norway, and almost 
immediately afterwards to his nephew, Albert of 
Mecklenburg. Leaving the Swedes to their fickle- 
ness, Haco consoled himself by marrying (1363) 
Margaret, daughter of Waldemar III., King of Den- 
mark. 

During a century and a half Denmark was in 
great agony. It had mighty neighbors and vicious 
or weak sovereigns ; it was a prey to revolutions ; 
finally, royalty died out in an interregnum of four- 
teen years (1326-1340). Waldemar III. (1340-1375) 
miffht have remedied these evils. He was brave and 
just, but he was at the same time hasty, inconstant, 
and easily discouraged. He undertook several wars, 
concluded treaties, travelled, and yet at his death 
left the kingdom almost as it was at his accession. 
He was the last descendant of Estrita, the sister of 
Canute the Great. The honor of retrieving the 
throne of Denmark was reserved to Margaret, the 
younger of Waldemar's two daughters. 

Margaret, the Semiramis of the North (1363- 
1412). — The male posterity of their kings being ex- 
tinct, the Danes offered the crown to young Olaf, 
the son of Margaret and Haco (1375). Haco, dying 



Fifth Epoch. 455 

five years after, left his son the crown of Norway 
and his legitimate claims to the crown of Sweden, of 
which he was heir a2)parent. xV boy of ten years was 
incapable of enforcing his rights or of governing 
alone ; but his mother was near him, relieving the 
people, checking the great, availing herself of the 
influence of the clerg}', and reforming abuses with 
equal tact and firmness. The blessings she had 
brought ]S"orway in her husband's name she extend- 
ed to Denmark in that of her son. But the latter 
died at the age of seventeen (1387), and with him 
expired the last royal family of Scandinavia. 

The great qualities of Margaret would be lost to 
the nation unless existing laws should be modified. 
This Denmark and Norway understood ; hence they 
entreated the princess to retain the supreme au- 
thority, and to rear the new king. Conformably 
to these views she called to the court her sister's 
grandson, Eric the Pomeranian, then but five years 
old. Eric was acknowledged, the queen educated 
him as her son, and did all in her pov/er to pre- 
pare for him a brilliant reign. Sweden, oppressed 
by Albert, was casting envious glances on the two 
neighboring kingdoms; the imprudent Mecklen- 
burger increased the discontent by ridiculing the 
piety of Margaret, sending her a whetstone to 
sharpen her scissors, and by assuming the title of 
king of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. Having, at 
great cost, raised an army, he one day swore not to 
put on his cap till he had conquered Margaret. The 
latter, nothing daunted, put a renowned general over 
her troops and won a signal victory at Falkjoping. 
Albert, being taken prisoner, was reminded of his 
oath by the present of a long woollen cap ; he Avas 



45 G History of the 3Iiddle Ages. 

consigned to a fortress, and Sweden, with the excep- 
tion of several castles, surrendered to the queen 
(1389). 

IJNiOii OF Calmak (1397). — Having let the Swedes 
relish for several years the sweets of her administra- 
tion, the illustrious daughter of Waldemar resolved 
to carry out a long-studied project. Convoking the 
deputies of the three kingdoms at Calmar, in Swe- 
den, she caused Eric to be solemnly crowned by the 
bishops, created one hundred and thirty-three 
knights chosen from each country, and delivered a 
discourse in which, adoring the Providence which 
had permitted the extinction of the three royal races, 
she expatiated on the advantages to accrue from the 
union of the three kingdoms. ''You will enjo}'," 
she said, ''unalterable peace and great commercial 
prosperity ; you will behold all the forces of the 
North turned against the enemy, the Hanseatic 
League deprived of its monopoly, the Baltic and the 
Atlantic open to the Scandinavians." This called 
forth loud applause and gained all the votes. It was 
agreed to unite the three kingdoms, in perpetuity, 
under the sceptre of one monarch, who should suc- 
cessively visit each kingdom, hear complaints of his 
subjects, and apj)oint the higher magistrates ; each 
country was to retain its laws and liberties, but in 
case one should be attacked by the enemy the others 
should come to its defence. Six cojiies of this cove- 
nant were written out on parchment, to which were 
affixed the seals of the king and queen, of all the 
deputies, of the Metropolitans of Upsal, of Lund, of 
Drontheim. So beautiful a conception, realized 
without convulsion, solely by persuasion at an oppor- 
tune moment, shows Margaret to have been a woman 



Fifth Epoch, 457 

of lofty genius, disinterested patriotism, and a clear 
perception of the part which Catholic Scandinavians 
would have enacted had they not again split into 
petty kingdoms and then fallen a prey to heresy. 
Hence in the history of the North the foundress of 
the Union stands alone ; her charitable institutions, 
her sincere piety and sterling virtues, have gained 
her the respect even of Protestant writers, who honor 
her by styling her the " Semiramis of the North." 

Margaret survived the consummation of the Scan- 
dinavian Union fifteen years, exterminated pirates, 
and removed all the difficulties that might trammel 
Eric's government. Unfortunately the latter had. 
not his aunt's virtues ; this soon became apparent, 
particularly in Sweden, where the unpunished ex- 
cesses of a royal lieutenant roused the indignation of 
the peasants (1433). A Dalecarlian nobleman named 
Engelbrecht made himself the champion and avenger 
of the oppressed. Perhaps he would have sustained 
till the end the h^q^ocritical part which Gustavus 
Vasa played in the following century had he not been 
assassinated either with the connivance or by the 
orders of Charles Canutson, an ambitious noble who 
resolved at any cost to ascend the throne of Sweden. 
By reviving the Union of Calmar the king regained 
his authority, but he again lost it by his eccentricities, 
particularly by his obstinate retirement in an island 
of the Baltic (1439). His nephew, Christopher the 
Bavarian, brought back concord for a time, but death 
snatched him away, and Canutson imposed himself 
on Sweden, and even upon Norway. 'His odious 
tyranny soon rendered him insupportable. The vir- 
tuous Christian I. of Oldenburg (1448-1481), being 
elected by the Danes, and acknowledged by the Nor- 



458 History of the Middle Ages. 

Avegians and tlie majority of the Swedes, patiently 
waited till his rival was wholly unpopular before re- 
establishing the Scandinavian monarchy and the 
Union of Calmar (1458). 

Sec. 2. The Slavs in Servitude, except the Poles and 
Hungarians. 

The Russians enthralled by the Golden 
Horde. — AVe have seen the Russians, after their bril- 
liant appearance in the third period, beginning to 
separate in the fourth from Catholic unity. After 
Aveakening themselves by internecine wars they were 
more easily trodden under foot by the Mongols. Dur- 
ing the fifth period their thraldom continued. The 
grand duke of Russia, at his accession, still went to the 
Golden Horde in its capital of Kaptchak, and there 
paid tribute, and on his knees received his investi- 
ture from the Tartar khan. The latter claimed the 
right of deposing his vassal, or even of putting him 
to death, in case he should be wanting in deference. 
The terrible Uzbek, in the beginning of the four- 
teenth century, caused two grand dukes to be slain 
before his eyes and deposed two others. At the end 
of the preceding century Nogai", a Mongol leader,' 
having rendered himself independent of the khan, 
long exacted from the Russian princes a second hom- 
age and exorbitant tributes. Thus the hapless suc- 
cessors of Rurik and their subjects gradually sank to 
the lowest level of moral degradation. Dmitrj lY., 
a founder of Moscow, elated by some successes, 
crossed the Don with a Russian army (1380). He 
decimated the Kaptchak army, but so weakened 
his own that it couia not withstand the lieu- 



Fifth JEfoch, 459 

tenants of Timur, nor the ferocious conqueror in 
person, nor even the Lithuanians. At the end of 
this period we see Yasili (Basil) III. (1425-14G2) 
driven out by his uncle, and then recalled ; taken by 
the Tartars and ransomed ; deprived of sight by a 
rebel, yet continuing to reign till the ill-advised par- 
tition of his dominions among his five sons. Four 
centuries of discord and oppression had not yet cor- 
rected the Russian princes. The expulsion of the 
metropolitan Isidore, who returned a Catholic from 
the General Council of Florence, proved this nation 
to be more schismatic than ever. It well deserved to 
have at once an absolute lord and master in Ivan 
III. (14G2-lo05), who refused tribute to the Mon- 
gols, but founded Muscovite autocracy npon the 
ruins of every princely, pojDular, and I'eligious liberty. 
About this time the first bands of Cossacks were 
formed (1444). 

I-Iu3iiLiATiox OF THE Slavs. — On botli banks of 
the Lower Danube arose the kingdom of Bulgaria in 
the thirteentli century. In the fourteenth Servia 
acquired ascendency over Bulgaria, Macedon, and 
Albania through the talents of Stephen Dushan 
(1333-135G), who took the title of emperor of the 
Servians, Albanians, and Greeks. These countries 
and a few others had repulsed the Mongols and 
shaken off the yoke of the Hungarian kings and the 
Byzantine Caesars ; but they still remained involved 
in the Greek schism. Before the end of the century 
the Ottoman Turks were to chastise them and effect 
what the Mongols of Kaptchak had done in Russia. 

Hungary and Poland were long in recovering from 
the Mongol invasion. Each suffered from intestine 
dissensions and underwent a long dynastic crisis. 



4G0 History of the Middle Ages. 

Two bulwarks at the portals of Europe were needed 
to stay the twofold scourge of Greek schism and bar- 
barian invasion. In Hungary and Poland there was 
Catholic vitality to furnish defenders of the faith 
and, as occasion required, heroes. 

Poland ; Casimir the Great (1333-1370) ; Cox- 
VERSio:^' OF THE LiTHUAXiAKS ; Jagellon (138G- 
14:34). — For nearly a hundred years unhappy Poland 
was a prey to anarchy, Mongol incursions, Lithu- 
anian idolaters, and even to the attacks of the 
Teutonic Knights. The accession of Casimir III. 
put an end to anarchy. This king caused his 
authority to be acknowledged by all the Poles, and 
his frontiers to be respected by neighboring princes. 
Although he lost Silesia, he gained Red Eussia, or 
Galicia; but not by conquests, nor by his private 
conduct, did Casimir merit the surname of Great, 
but by the wisdom of his administration, the tran- 
quillity of his reign, and the written code which he 
has left, entitled the ^'Universal Statute." According 
to these laws, the nobles alone shared with the king 
political power, but the peasants enjoyed civil liberty. 
Hence the nobles called Casimir King of the Peasants. 
His heir was his nephew, Louis the Great of Hun- 
gary, whose daughter Hedwig, crowned king of Po- 
land (1384), secured her own happiness, her throne, 
and her glory by wedding Jagellon, Grand Duke of 
Lithuania (1386). 

Lithuania had remained pagan ; tlie idol of Perun 
was still adored in Europe at the end of the four- 
teenth century. Tlie Teutonic Knights, who had 
completed tlie conversion of the Prussians, strenu- 
ously warred to reduce tlie Lithuanians likewise ; 
but the latter clung to their errors, and by fighting 



. Fifth Efoch, 461 

for them liad rooted tlieir independence the more 
deeply. Gedimin and Olgierd, both intrepid war- 
riors, had succeeded to the grand-ducal throne and 
had conquered a vast tract. Jagellon, their son and 
grandson, was not inferior in bravery. He had just 
succeeded his father when he solicited the hand of 
Hedwig, promising to become a Christian. He was 
ugly, ill-shapen, and said to be cruel. Smothering 
her repugnance, Hedwig consented to the union. 
Then Poland, increased by all Lithuania, became 
not only one of the first powers in Europe, but in 
Jagellon, who took the baptismal name of Ladislaus 
v., she gained a great king and a fervent Christian. 
The Lithuanian lords flocked to their prince to be 
instructed and to receive from his hand a beautiful 
white robe on the day of their baptism. They were 
the last Europeans converted. Hedwig of Anjou, 
sprung from the royal race of France, effected this 
brilliant triumph for Christianity. 

Jagellon, having become Christian, refused to 
assist the revolt of the Hussites, although they 
offered him the kingdom of Bohemia. Still he could 
not allow the Teutonic Knights to encroach on the 
rights of his crown. He vigorously attacked them 
at Tannenberg, slew the grand master, six hundred 
knights, and forty thousand soldiers (1410). This 
bloody defeat humbled the order, which had greatly 
degenerated, and guaranteed incontestable ascendency 
to Poland. True, Hedwig's father, on succeeding Casi- 
mir, had begun the system of the Pacta Conventa, 
which, by favoring the nobility at the expense of 
the peasants and the king, w\as one day to bring ruin 
on Poland ; but the danger was averted during the 
two centuries that the Jagellons reigned (1386-1573). 



462 History of the Middle Ages. 

Hungary ; Louis the Great (1342-1382) ; SiG- 
iSMukD (1387-1437).— AVith the thirteenth century 
the Arpad line became extinct amidst disturbances 
which lasted till the crowning of Charobert (1310). 
This prince, the great-grandson of Charles of Anjou, 
brotlier of St. Louis, was descended from a Hun- 
garian princess. His reign was confined to the 
strengthening of a dynasty that gave Hungary but 
one king after himself, Louis. Louis also inherited 
Poland. Wars to render the Transylvanian Saxons 
tributary, to extort homage from the Wallachian 
and Moldavian princes ; struggles with the Vene- 
tians to retake Dalmatia ; an expedition to IN'aples to 
avenge a slaughtered brother ; a coalition of the 
Danubian races against invading Turks — such were 
the leading events of the forty years' reign of Louis 
of Anjou, King of Hungary. Still, his surname of 
Great was deserved more because he encouraged 
agriculture, planted the vineyards of Tokay, favored 
commerce, ^orotected the peasantry against the mag- 
nates, and restored the ro3^al power. He was beloved 
by the Hungarians, but did not render equal services 
to Poland during his twelve years' reign there (1370- 
1382). 

After his death, while his youngest daughter, 
Hedwig, was called to succeed him in the latter 
country, his eldest daughter, Mary, inherited Hun- 
gary, of which she was crowned as hing. Dissensions 
at once broke out. Sigismund of Luxembourg espous- 
ed the princess. A son of the Emperor Charles IV., 
a brother of the Emperor Wenccslaus, and himself 
destined to the empire, Sigismund, already in enjoy- 
ment of a rich electorate, was not as welcome to Hun- 
gary as his brother-in-law, Jagellon, was to Poland. 



Fifth Epoch. 463 

Opposed at first by the Hungarian magnates and by 
unprincipled rivals, lie was afterwards harassed by 
the Ottomans. After the disaster of Nicopolis 
(139G) he did not appear for six months in Hungary. 
Thanks to his moderation, he succeeded in regaining 
his power there, Which enabled him to labor for the 
restoration of order in Bohemia, disturbed by the 
Hussites, in the Germanic empire, disgraced by his 
brother Wenceslaus, and in the Holy Church, rent 
by the great schism. 

By giving his daughter Elizabeth in marriage to 
Albert of Austria, Sigismund indicated the family 
which was soon to govern the Hungarians without 
interruption. Albert died the second year of his 
reign (1439). Ladislaus, King of Poland, was a son 
of Jagellon, and in him Elizabeth sought a de- 
fender for her infant son and for Hungary, which 
was then at bay ; but he, with his army and allies, 
was exterminated on the day of Varna (1444). 
Hungary was saved only by Scanderbeg's diversions, 
the exploits of John Hunyades, and the Crusaders 
whom St. John Capistran led to the walls of Bel- 
grade. It was to have another great king in Mat- 
thias Corvinus, the son of Hunyades (1458-1490). 



464: History OF THE Middle Ages, 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE GHEEK EMPIRE AND THE OTTOMAN 
TURKS. 

Tlie Greek Empire, successively governed hy seven princes of 
the family of Pahuologus, at first loses nearly all its posses- 
sions, then is apparently delivered by Tamerlane's victory 
over the Ottoman Turks, and finally loses its doubtful ex- 
istence by the fall of Constantinople. 

Sec. 1. Conquests of the Ottoman Turks till the Battle 
of Angora (1299-1402). 

Weakness of the Second Greek Empire. — 
Constantinople, taken by surprise from Baldwin 11. , 
the last Latin emperor, had opened its gates in tri- 
umph to Michael Palseologus, Emperor of Nicasa 
(12G1). This prmce, crowned anew in the Church 
of St. Sophia, revived the Eastern empire. His 
possessions, reduced to the provinces surrounding 
Constantinople, were threatened by the Ottoman 
Turks in Asia Minor and by the Latins in Europe. 
These two enemies had an equal dislike for the 
Greeks : the one, because they w^re schismatics ; the 
other, because they were Christians. And they were 
equally to be feared by the Greeks. Alarmed by the 
danger, Michael Palaeologus undertook to reconcile 
the Greek and Latin churches, for the purpose of 
securing the aid of the Western princes. The union 
of the two churches was solemnly proclaimed by the 
(Ecumenical Council of Lyons (1274) ; but the em- 
peror was foiled in his efforts to make his subjects 
accept it, who were as obstinate in schism as they 
were insensible to their country's peril. Andronicus 
the Elder, son and successor of Michael, began his 



Fifth Epoch. 465 

reign (1283) by an open rupture witli the Latin 
Church. This weak-minded monarch, by a just 
chastisement of Heaven, fell under the dislike and 
contempt of his subjects, whom he burdened with 
taxes in order to buy off his enemies or to fight 
them with mercenaries, who thought less of defend- 
ing the empire than of conquering it. The Catalans 
and other auxiliaries from the West even blockaded 
Constantinople, and took the pompous title of the 
''^ Army of the Franks ruling in Thrace and Mace- 
donia." 

Civil war filled the measure of woes. Andronicus 
the Elder, who had implored the support of the 
Turks, was nevertheless dethroned by his grandson, 
Andronicus the Younger (1328). The new empe- 
ror, despite his valor, was unable to retain his pro- 
vinces of Asia Minor, and left the crown to John 
Paleeologus I., then but nine years old. This disas- 
trous reign of half a century opened in anarchy 
(1341-1391). John Cantacuzenus, guardian of the 
young monarch, assumed the imperial dignity, and 
even invested his own son with it ; so that there 
were three emperors at once, who called on the neigh- 
boring nations for aid against each other. So many 
calamities had resulted that Cantacuzenus made a 
voluntary abdication in the hope of bettering the 
condition of affairs ; but his alliance with the Otto- 
man Turks had emboldened the future conquerors of 
Constantinople, and the marriage of his daughter 
with John PalaBologus had only contributed to reveal 
the extreme misery of the Eastern empire. Amidst 
the entertainments in the imperial palace costly gems 
no longer sparkled, and the ancient jewels of the 
crown w^ei'e no longer there ; the two spouses 



466 History of the Middle Ages. 

■were obliged to replace their splendor by the false 
glitter of colored glass, and, as they no longer had 
gold and silver vessels, the guests were served in cop- 
per cups and pewter plates. 

FoUNDATIOiN^ OF THE OTTOMAiq- EMPIRE (1299) ; 

Taking of Gallipoli (135G) and Adrianople 
(13G1). — A few hundred Turks, driven from the 
borders of the Caspian Sea by the Mongol invasion, 
had emigrated to Asia Minor. Their warlike charac- 
ter soon rendered them formidable, while the dis- 
memberment of the sultanate of Iconium (Konieh) 
furnished their chief, Osman, or Ottoman, an oppor- 
tunity of founding an independent state, which he 
formed out of territory belonging to the Greeks 
(1299). The new empire took the name of its 
founder, and the Turks were thenceforth called 
Ottomans, or Osmanlis. Orkhan (1326-13G0), the 
son and successor of Osman, having taken Brusa, 
in Bithynia, after a ten years' blockade, made it his 
capital. Four years later Nicoea opened its gates to 
him (1330), and the Greeks speedily lost all their 
possessions in Asia Minor. Their intestine dissen- 
sions permitted the sultan to become in turn their 
enemy or their ally, as best suited his interests. One 
of his sons, sent to help John Cantacuzenus, had ren- 
dered the Ottoman name so terrible that an unex- 
pected attack gained him an important conquest. 
Accompanied by only thirty-nine men, he crossed 
the Hellespont on a raft, and, in disgraceful viola- 
tion of the treaty with the Greeks, drove them from 
the stronghold of Gallipoli. By this lawless act the 
Ottoman Turks gained a footing in Europe (1356). 
Orkhan had already given them a military organiza- 
tion calculated to secure the success of their invasion. 



Fifth Epoch. 467 

To the irregular troops the sultan had added a corps 
of infantry, called from the beginning Yeni Cheri, 
or New Troop ; hence the word janizaries. This 
valiant militia was recruited from robust Christian 
children, taken captive or kidnapped from their 
parents. They were first inspired with frenzied 
fanaticism, and then were taught the blindest obe- 
dience, either by the severity of discipline or by the 
bait of sensual pleasures. At that time there was no 
other regular standing army in Europe. Hence the 
struggle between the janizaries and Christian sol- 
diers was long unequal, particularly as the latter 
felt that their implacable enemies would have re- 
mained their brethren had not Mussulman ferocity 
snatched them away in childhood from all that is 
dearest in the world, their family, country, and re- 
ligion.* 

Amurat (or Murad) I. (1360-1389), a son of Orkhan, 
on his accession took Adrianople, which became his 
capital. The Emperor John Palseologus retained 
nothing beyond the suburbs of Constantinople. 
Seeing himself threatened by land and sea, he betook 
himself to Italy to reconcile the Greeks with the 
Latin Church ; but the hapless successor of Constan- 
tine the Great was arrested for debt at Venice, and 
would have died there insolvent had it not been for 



* It is estimated that more than five hundred thousand Christian children 
were enrolled by the sultans in the militia of the janizaries. To make sure 
of their fidelity they received higher wages and more abundant food than 
other troops. The most sacred object in each regiment was the saucepan, 
around which all gathered not only to eat but to hold council. The sultan 
was called the foster-father, and the colonel chief soup-maker ; after the 
colonel came the chief cook, chief water-carrier, etc. To upset or break the 
saucepan was the first signal of revolt among the janizaries. This barbar- 
ous militia was maintained till the reign of Mahmoud II., who rid himself of 
them by wholesale massacre (1828). 



468 His'ioRY OF THE Middle Ages. 

the filial piety of his son, who rescued liim from the 
hands of his creditors. This humiliation was fol- 
lowed by another less pardonable, as being voluntary 
and degrading. He had the cowardice to pay tribute 
to the sultan and to accompany him witli troops in 
all his expeditions (1370). In default of the Greeks 
the cause of Christianity had found defenders among 
the races who dwelt along the banks of the Danube. 
The princes of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria, ever 
vanquished but never disheartened, made a final 
effort on the plain of Kossovo, where they engaged in 
battle (1389) with the sultan. Amurat was again 
victorious, but as he was crossing the plain, covered 
with the dead and dying, a Servian, summoning his 
remaining strength, sprang up and plunged his 
dagger into the sultan's breast. Thus perished the 
fierce conqueror whom the Turks surnamed the 
Workman of God, notwithstanding his barbarity in 
putting out the eyes of one of his sons and of forcing 
on several innocent fathers the alternative of cutting 
their children's throats or having their own cut 
with them. 

Bayazid or Bajazet I. (1389-1402) ; Battle of 
JSTicoPOLis (1396). — Baj^azid was scarcely proclaimed 
sultan than, without even waiting till his father's 
obsequies were over, he killed his only brother, whose 
ambition caused him uneasiness. This fratricide, 
committed with equal despatch and cruelty, gave 
him the surname of Ilderim (lightning). He de- 
served it still more by the rapidity of his conquests, 
as well on the Danube as in Asia Minor, where he 
reduced the Seljukian emirs, who had hitherto re- 
mained independent. Meanwhile, John Palceologus 
dying, Manuel Palieologus, his son and successor 



Fifth Epoch. 469 

(1391-1425), escaped from the Turkisli camp, where 
he was retained as a hostage. Bayazid, in revenge, 
blockaded Constantinople, and boasted that liis 
steed would soon cat oats off the high altar of St. 
Peters at Eome. The insolent threat roused Chris- 
tian Europe. More than one hundred thousand 
Crusaders advanced along the valley of the Danube 
under Sigismund, King of Hungary, and John, after- 
w^ards surnamed the Fearless, Count of Nevers, and 
son of the duke of Burgundy. The Christian knights, 
glorying in their numbers and valor, boasted that if 
heaven should fall they could uphold it on the points 
of their spears. This foolish presumption was to 
cost them dear. The French, who marched in the 
van without order or discipline, were deaf to the 
wise counsels of Sigismund. Having fallen with 
fiery rashness on the first infidel troops they met, 
they slaughtered many and pursued others to an 
eminence near Nicopolis. There, instead of com- 
pleting their victory as they had expected, they en- 
countered the light cavalry of the spahis and the 
formidable janizaries, the flower of the Ottoman 
army, which Bayazid prudently held in ]-eserve. 
The unexpected sight, together with the fatigue and 
disorder of j^ursuit, turned their confidence into 
despair. All of the panic-stricken army who were 
not killed, wounded, or taken prisoners fled, and 
King Sigismund had barely time to throw himself 
into a boat and drop down the Danube to the Black 
Sea. 

The battle-field was strewn with more than fifty 
thousand infidel corpses. Bayazid, who had been 
vrounded, swore signal vengeance. By his order 
and under his eyes ten thousand Christian pri- 



470 History of the Middle Ages. 

soners were belieaded, or were beaten to death 
with clubs. They were heard mutually exhort- 
ing one another to martyrdom in view of the re- 
ward to follow. The heartless sultan sjmred none 
but tlic count of Nevers, the brave Marshal de Bou- 
cicaut, and twenty-three of tlio most illustrious 
knights, for whom he expected a high ransom. 
Skilful in profiting by his victory, he extended his 
conquests along the Danube, and was at last prepar- 
ing to take Constantinople when he was deterred 
by the approach of a more dangerous foe. 

Sec. 2. The Mongol Empire under Timiir ; the Otto- 
man Turhs to the Tahing of Constantinopte (1402- 
1453). 

TiMUR (1370-1405) ; nis Expeditio:n'S K^Ji Con- 
quests. — In the village of Kesh, near Samarcand, in 
Independent Tartary, was born, in 1336, the famous 
conqueror Timur-lcnk (the iron), or Tamerlane, 
called also tlie Lame, in consequence of a wound he 
had received in fighting. His ambition early in- 
spired him with the desire of reviving for himself 
the Mongol empire of Jenghis Klian, from whom he 
was descended by his mother's side. Sagacious, dar- 
ing, and cunning, he began by conquering the vast 
tracts known as Jagatai. Samarcand became his 
capital. Having summoned a great meeting of Mon- 
gol chiefs, he mounted the throne of Jenghis Khan, 
init a gold crown upon his head, and proclaimed him- 
self lord of tlie cast and the west, swearing to the 
emirs kneeling at his feet to bring the rulers of the 
wliolc world to his sway (1370). 

In his first campaign Timur took tlie opulent city 



Fifth Epoch. 471 

of Herat by assault, and despoiled it of its riches for 
the benefit of Samarcand. Terror spread throughout 
the surrounding countries ; all who resisted were 
either massacred or buried alive. This was only 
the beginning of the atrocities committed in Persia. 
The ferocious conqueror struck off seventy thousand 
heads in the city of Ispahan, and piled them up in 
the form of towers in the public places. These 
ghastly tropliies everywhere marked Timur's pas- 
sage. Crossing the Caucasus range, he beat the 
khan of the Golden Horde, destroyed Azof, menaced 
Moscow with a like fate, and sent one of his lieu- 
tenants to devastate Poland. But God kept this 
cruel scourge of men from devastating Europe. It 
was soon learned that he had turned back and 
crossed Central Asia on his way to India. His ar- 
rival at Delhi cost the lives of one hundred thousand 
Hindoos, who were butchered in cold blood. Both 
banks of the Ganges were covered w^ith ruins and 
changed into deserts (1399). The Mongol emperor, 
proud of having penetrated farther than Alexander 
the Great or Jenghis Khan, his two heroes, re- 
turned in triumph to Samarcand. His insatiable 
craving for bloodshed left him no rest. Under pre- 
text of avenging the outrage offered to his ambassa- 
dors, he directed his march against Syria, twice beat 
the sultan of the Mamelukes, and reduced Damascus 
to ashes (1401). Bagdad suffered the same ftlte. 
Every Mongol soldier was required to bring at least 
one head or forfeit his own, and thus one hundred 
and twenty towers of human heads were raised on 
the ruins of the immense city. 

So many conquests and massacres had inspired the 
conqueror of N"icopolis with less terror than jealousy. 



472 History of tue Middle Ages. 

The proud J^ayazid ill-tretitcd the Mongol ambassa- 
dors and goaded the fury of their master by an 
insulting letter. ^^Know," replied Timur, 'Uliat I 
hold the fate of the world in my hands, and tliat 
fortune is my inseparable attendant. AVho art thou 
thus to brave me ? Pitiful Turkoman pismire ! dost 
thou dare attack the elephant?" The conqueror 
appointed the plains of Asia Minor for the encoun- 
ter. His design was to annex that region to his 
vast empire, which already stretched from the Medi- 
terranean to the frontiers of China and from the 
banks of the Ganges to those of the Dnieper. 

Battle op Ai^^GORA (1402). — Timur and Bayazid 
met near Angora, or Ancyra, the former at the head 
of eight hundred thousand Tartars, the latter with 
but two hundred thousand Ottoman Turks. Not- 
withstanding the inferiority of his forces, the sultan 
had such contempt for his enemy that just before en- 
gaging battle he ostentatiously exposed his army to 
the burning rays of the sun and the fatigues of a 
great hunt. This imprudence cost him six thousand 
men and added to the discontent caused by his ava- 
rice and debauchery, which scandalized even Mussul- 
mans. Timur, on the contrary, warily added the ad- 
vantage of position to that of numbers, and carried 
on secret intrigues in the Ottoman army, while his 
own soldiers were in repose. His skilfulness and 
the fanatical devotion of the Mono-ols assured him 
the victory. He so acted, however, as if he expected 
it from heaven alone ; for he was a rigid observer of 
the Koran, Avhich he continually quoted to justify 
his bloodiest deeds. He alighted from his charger in 
view of tlie troops, and made his prayer before giv- 
ing the signal of battle. Success at first seemed 



Fifth Epoch. 473 

doubtful. The Christian auxiliaries who formed 
Bayazid's left repulsed the dense masses of Tartars ; 
but they beat a retreat on seeing* the treachery of the 
right wing, which entirely passed over to the enemy's 
ranks. The sultan, surrounded by his janizaries, 
held out till evening ; but at last, having only a fee- 
ble escort remaining, he sought safety in flight, al- 
though suffering from fatigue and palsy. He was 
arrested by Mongol horsemen, who led him, bound, 
to Timur's tent. The latter, ordering his hands to 
be untied, gazed fixedly on his captive and began to 
smile. " Timur," said Bayazid, '^^ deride not my 
misfortune." Timur, resuming his gravity, replied : 
^' God forbid that I should deride thy misfortune ; but 
while gazing upon thee I thought how little account 
God makes of this world's empires, since he bestows 
them on a paralytic like thee and a cripple like me." 
All Asia Minor submitted to the conqueror, and 
the emperor of Constantinople consented to pay him 
tribute. Bayazid, though treated with due regard, 
soon gave vfay to the shame of his captivity. Timur, 
on his return from Samarcand, made immense prepa- 
rations for war on China, which, after the example 
of Jenghis Khan, he was desirous of conquering. 
But he died at the outset of his expedition, leaving 
among his subjects the reputation of a ruler un- 
equalled in arms and iir government, of an enlight- 
ened patron of science and letters, and so generous 
and sincere that he preferred a disagreeable truth to 
a flattering lie. Let his real or supposed qualities be 
what they may, Timur treated the vanquished with 
unexampled barbarity, and he is justly considered 
the most atrocious of conquerors. Frenzied by Mos- 
lem fanaticism, he left onlv bloodshed and ruins in 



474 History of the Middle Ages. 

his track, caring for naught but to gkit his ambition 
and increase his dominion. His empire did not sur- 
vive him, but one of his great-grandsons founded the 
emj^ire of the Great Mogul in India, which has been 
superseded in our own century by British rule. 

Amurat II. (1421-1451), John Huxyades, and 
ScAXDEEBEG. — The Captivity of Bayazid, followed by 
a long civil war among his five sons, seemed to fore- 
bode the immediate ruin of the Ottoman empire. 
Manuel Palseologus, instead of taking advantage of 
it to extend his dominions, sought to secure the 
alliance of Mohammed I., who triumphed over his 
brothers and left the throne to his son, Amurat II. 
The new sultan, to revenge himself on Manuel, who 
set up a rival against him, laid siege to Constanti- 
nople (1422). The courage of the besieged and the 
revolt of his brother compelled Amurat to withdraw ; 
but the success of his arms in Asia Minor and Greece 
confirmed his purpose of one day taking the capital 
of the Eastern empire. John Palseologus 11. , the 
son and successor of Manuel, at first saw but one 
means of averting the danger ; that was to pay tri- 
bute to the sultan (1424). But experience taught 
him that this was only clearing the way for his 
enemy to Constantinople. Hence he resolved to get 
help from the West, and was solemnly reconciled 
with the Latin Church in the Council of Florence 
(1439). It was no longer degenerate Greeks, but 
Christians fired with the warm faith of the Crusades, 
who grappled with the Ottoman Turks. The latter 
could judge of the difference by their reverses. 
Worsted in several engagements on the Danube, 
they fled before the soldiers of a hero whom they 
called in their terror the Devil, and who had 



Fifth Epoch. 475 

received from tlie Christians tlie surname of the 
AVhito Knight of AValhichia. His real name was 
John Hunyades, tvayioode, or prince, of Transylvania. 
This valiant champion of the cross, once master of 
the Danube, pursued the infidels along the right 
bank of the river, cut them to j)ieces, and rapidly 
marched upon Adrianople (1443). 

The sultan, in turn, trembled for his capital. 
What added to his alarm was the unexpected defec- 
tion of one of his lieutenants, whom he had reared 
at court and loaded with favors. Grcorge Castriota, 
a son of the Christian prince of Albania, was torn in 
childhood from his family and his religion, and had 
earned- from the Turks, by his extraordinary courage, 
the cognomen of Scanderbeg, or Prince Alexander. 
Still he could not forget that he had been born a 
Christian, and that Amurat had deprived him of 
his patrimony. Resolving to have no enemies but 
those of his religion and country, he profited by the 
rout of the infidels to arrest the secretary of Amurat, 
and, cimeter in hand, to extort an order in the sul- 
tan's name, conferring on him the government of 
Croya, the capital of Albania. Followed by a hand- 
ful of brave fellows, Scanderbeg entered Croya, occu- 
pied the whole country, and opened a desperate 
struggle with the Ottoman Turks. His successes, 
along with those of Hunyades, induced Amurat to sue 
for peace. The Crusaders committed one error in 
granting it, and another in violating it in the hope 
of crushing the infidels. But the sultan, at the 
head of a numerous army, marched against them, 
displaying the violated treaty on a i^ike as a witness 
of their perjury. Tlie engagement took place- m the* 
plains of Varna (1444). At the very outset Hun- 



476 History of tue Middle Ages. 

yades broke the left wing of the enemy and drove 
it pellmell before liim. Inspired by the sight, Liidis- 
hius, King of Pokind and Hungary, allowing himself 
to be led by his rash ardor, dashed into the midst of 
the infidels ; he was overpowered by numbers, and 
his death was followed by the rout of his troops. 
The barbarous sultan, cutting off the young mon- 
arch's head, sent it to Asia as the most glorious 
trophy of his victory. 

John Hunyades, named regent of Hungary, burned 
to retaliate. Without awaiting his ally, Scanderbeg, 
he gave battle at Kossovo, in the Field of Blackbirds ; 
he there slew or disabled forty thousand infidels, but 
still could not wrest victory from them (1448)^ His 
defeat was a grievous blow to John Palceologus, who 
survived it but a fcAV days. The valiant Scan- 
derbeg, emboldened rather than intimidated by the 
peril, was still able to humble the sultan's pride. 
Twice did Amurat advance to the walls of Oroya, 
and twice was he forced to retire ; dying of rage and 
vexation, he ordered hi's son Mohammed to turn all 
his forces against the ca]3ital of the East. 

COXSTANTINE XII. (1448-1453) AND MOHAMMED 

11. (1451-1481) ; Taking or Constantinople 
(1453). — Constantine XII., like his brother Jolin 
Palaeologus, was obliged to pay tribute to the Turks. 
In return, under a solemn oath, Mohammed II. luid 
guaranteed him the peaceful possession of his empire. 
But the ferocious sultan, who had begun his reign by 
fratricide, had no more regard for treaties than for 
ties of flesh and blood. His long-premeditated i)ro- 
jects of conquest haunted his very slumbers. To 
ensure success he had an immense fortress construct- 
ed on the European shore of the Bosi^horus. Being 



Fifth Epoch. 477 

thus master of the straits, he then hiid violent hands 
on the Greeks of the neighborliood, and answered their 
complaints by a declaration of war. At the head of 
two hundred and fifty thousand men, supported by a 
fleet of four hundred sail, he laid siege to Constan- 
tinople by land and sea (April 6, 1453). 

The city contained scarcely ten thousand soldiers, 
twenty-five hundred of whom were Italians from 
Genoa and Venice, the only ones who had rallied at 
the sovereign pontiff's summons. Three hundred 
thousand Turks sat down before Constantinople. 
But nothing could disj^el the prejudices of the Greek 
schismatics ; not even the sight of impending danger, 
nor the example and entreaties of the emperor, who 
had embraced the Catholic faith. " iVway with them ! 
We want no Latin allies ! Away with the worship of 
the Azymites !" they cried. The presence of Cardinal 
Isidore, the legate of the Holy See, was more displeas- 
ing to them than the prospect of infidel rule, and 
ISTotaras, tlie high admiral of the empire, was heard 
to say with the malcontents that he would ^'rather 
have the turban of Mohammed than the pope's tiara 
in Constantino^^le." But the most terrible of chastise- 
ments was reserved for these blind fanatics, though 
it was delayed by the heroic faith and courage of 
Constantine. Daily he was seen at the head of his 
men, repelling assaults, while at night he directed 
the workmen who were repairing the breaches made 
in the wails by the terrible artillery of the enemy.* 

* Mohammed 11. liad a great mimber of cannon which propelled balls of 
one hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds. He had constructed one that 
was so enormous as to hurl balls of twelve hundred pounds, and it required 
fifty yoke of oxen and more than seven hundred men to transport and work 
it. The superiority of the Ottoman over the Greek artillery greatly con- 
tributed to the taking of Constantinople. 



478 History of the Middle Ages. 

The Italians fought like lions. The struggle con- 
tinued without rest, and, carried on by both sides 
with equal fury, had been jorotracted for several weeks 
without any decided advantage, when an extraordi- 
nary manoBuvre brought it to a close. 

A massive chain stretched across the outer end of 
the port shut out the Ottoman fleet. Mohammed 
hit upon the j)lan of entering it by a long detour. 
During the night ho transported eighty ships over- 
land by sliding them along on greased i:»lanks, and 
launched them in the very centre of the port, back 
of the suburb of Galata. The besieged were equally 
dismayed and astounded to find themselves in danger 
from the quarter where they felt most secure. They 
made many efforts to extricate their own vessels and 
burn those of the Mussulmans, but in vain. The 
last hour had come. Constantine prepared for it by 
an action worthy of a Christian emperor. After 
hearing Mass and receiving Communion in the 
basilica of St. Sophia, he offered up his life to God 
in expiation of his own sins and his people's ; then 
he exhorted the warriors to perish gloriously fighting 
rather than to yield to the infidels, and he ordered the 
non-combatant multitude to pray for their country- 
men in the battle. This stirring scene ended with 
tears and embraces. The emperor, mounting his 
horse, hastened to the ramparts (May 29, 1453). 
The whole Ottoman arm}^, uttering furious yells, 
began the attack at dawn. The sultan, to spur 
on his soldiers, spared neither threats nor pro- 
mises : death to cowards, three days' pillage for 
those who entered the city. The fury of the 
assailants was long powerless against defenders 
resolved to die for their faith and their coun- 



Fifth Epoch. 479 

try; but numbers at last prevailed. Constanti- 
nople, falling for the first time into the hands of 
barbarians, underwent all the indescribable horrors of 
a city given up to sack. Its inhabitants, to the num- 
ber of upwards of 100,000, were reduced to slaver}^ 
massacred, or, as happened to the high admiral of 
the empire, were reserved for the most exquisite tor- 
tures devised by Moslem fanaticism. Some distin- 
guished Greeks found shelter in the Venetian galleys, 
and thus escaped to Italy, where they were w^elcomed 
by the pope and others of the Italians. Their ar- 
rival in Italy gave a new impulse to letters and learn- 
ing. 

Constantine had disappeared in the breach in the 
height of the melee. His corpse was recognized by 
his purple buskins ; his head was cut oif and taken 
to Mohammed. The sultan sent this bloody witness 
of his triumph amongst all his poojole in Asia, and 
he turned the magnificent basilica of St. Sophia into 
a mosque. Thus fell the Eastern empire eleven 
hundred and twenty- three years after the foundation 
of Constantinople, and nine hundred and seventy- 
seven years after the fall of the Western empire. 
The history of the Middle Ages ends with this 
dire catastrophe, which follows close upon the great 
schism, and coincides with the conclusion of the 
Hundred Years' War, 



EEYIEW QUESTIONS. 



INTRODUCTIOX. 

V>'hy is the period treated in this history called the Middle Ages ? What 
distii'.iriiii'lH's tlieni as a period ? What was the extent of the Roman Empire 
at rile rnd of the fourth century ? Ilow was it governed '{ What is said of 
ihc! (k'cay of i)alri()tism ? How did the liomans divide the barbarian terri- 
tory ': Mention tlie principal tribes and nations of the Germans. Wliat 
\vere the characteristics of the Germans 'i What was tlieir Ljovenuuent ? 
their religion ? ]S'ame the principal Slavic tribes. Wiiat is said of tlie 
iScvthian race '? What of the invasion of the Huns ? How did Valens deal 
Avith the Visigoths ? What do you remark of the Church at this luimi 
State the Epochs of the Middle Ages. 

FIRST EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

l^frlinn 1.— How did Theodosius divide the empire ? What is said of 
Stiliclio and his rival ? Describe Alaric's exploits Ix'fore Constantinople ; 
in (Jreece. Narrate his first invasion of Italy. What is said of the last 
dadiatorial combat at Rome ? What is said of Radagasius ? What of the 
barbarians in Gaul ? Relate Alaric's second invasion of Italy, and his death. 
Who was Ataulf y Wallia ? 

Secfion 2.— What followed the contentions of AStius and Count Boniface ? 
Describe Ck'nseric's career in Africa ; i^n the Mediterranean. What is said 
of Attila personally ? of his invasion of Ganl ? of Italy ? of his death ? 

Section o.— Dewaiibe Genseric's taking of Rome. How did the barbarian 
" confederates 'I dispose of the imperial purple ? What is said of Odoacer ? 

CHAPTER n. 

Section 1.— What was the oricrin of the Franks ? What tribes held Ganl 
at the appearance of Clovis ? What is said of Clovis before his conversion ? 
Descri'be his conversion ; iiis subsequent career. 

Socfion '2.— How was the Prankish kingdoui divided at the death of Clovis ? 
Wliat is said of Theodebert and the Emneror Justinian ? Relate the rivalry 
between Brunehaut and Fredegunda. What is said of Dagobert I. ? 

CHAPTER m. 
"Wliat was the condition of Britain before the Saxon invasion ? Describe 
the first appearance in Britain of the Saxons ; of the Angles. What was the 
Anglo-Saxon Hentarchv ? What became of the Britons ? What part had 
St. Grecrorv the Great in the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons ? Describe St. 
Austin's labors. 

CHAPTER IT. 
■^Iiat is said of the kingdom of tlie Yisisiolhs in the fifth century ? 
What was the religion of the Visigoths ? How were thev led to the true 
faith ? 

CHAPTER V. 
Section 1. — "tTow did Odoacer rule Itnlv from his capital of Ravenna ? 
Section 2.— Who was Theodoric ? What is said of the Ostrogoth invasion 
4S0 



Review Questions. 481 

of Italy, and of the death of Odoaccr ? What was the extent of Thcodoric's 
dominion ? Wliat wa?^ liis conduct towards the Church ? 

Section 3.— What were the cliariicteristics of the Lower Empire ? Who 
was the founder of the Thracian dynasty ? Wliat is said of Justin I. '? 
What constituted tlie glory of Justinian's rei^n ? Describe Belisarius's 
campaign against the Vandals. What is said of vitiges ? What of Totila ? 
Name and describe Justinian's contributions to Koman law. How did 
Phocas become emperor ? 

Section 4.— What is said of the manners and of the appearance of the 
Lombards '? Describe their invasion of Italy ; their settlement there. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Section 1.— What dogma was attacked by the Arian and Macedonian 
heresies ? What was the Pelagian heresy ? the Nestorian ? the Eutvchian ? 
What was one of the nnfortunate resnlts that followed Oriental schisms ? 
What was the origin of the monastic life ? What is said of St. Benedict and 
his order ? What of literature and the arts at this period in the East ? and 
in the West? .j. 

Section 2.— What do you remark in connection with the Arianism of the 
barbarians? Why may the Franks be called the "eldest sons of the 
Church"? What was the condition of the Church under Pope St. Gre- 
gory I. ? Mention Pope Gregory's principal achievements. 



SECOND EPOCH, 

CHAPTER I. 

Section 1.— Who were the " Sluggard " kings ? What is said of the mayors 
of the palace ? What of Pepin of Landen ? Of Pepin of Heristal ? Who' 
was Charles Martel ? Describe the battle of Tours. 

Section 2.— How was the temporal sovereignty of the popes founded ? 
What was Charlemagne's first exploit ? What is said of his struggle with 
the Saxons ? Describe his coronation ; his subsequent military career. 
What v/ere the capitulars ? What schools did he establish ? What is said 
of Ids learning ? and of his patronage of literature ? 

CHAPTER II. 

Section 1.— What is said of Mohammed's early life ? What of Islam's first 
converts ' What is the Hegira ? and its date ? Relate the circumstances of 
Mohammed's death. What is the Koran ? and how was it composed ? and 
compiled ? What are the fundamental points of its doctrine ? Mention 
some of its precepts. „ , , . . -, ^ ^, . 

Section 2.— How was Mohammed succeeded ? What is said of the invasion 
of Syria ? of the taking of Jerusalem ? How did the Mussulmans succeed 
in conquering Egypt ? What is said of the destruction of the Alexandrian 
librarv ? What are the two principal sects of Islam ? 

Section 3.— \\Tiat is said of the first Ommiade caJiph's accession ? What 
conquests did he make ? What of the final destruction of Carthage ? What 
led to the Mussulman invasion of Spain ? Describe the Mussulman's land- 
ing ; the battle of Xeres. What is said of the hero of the Asturias ? What 
of Abd-er-Rahman's invasion of Gaul ? Describe Caliph Solimau's attack 
on Constantinople. Who were the Abbasides ? 

Section 4.— What is said of Harun-al-Rashid ? What of the Moslems at 
Cordova ? 

Section ,5.— How did the Arabs get credit for the inventions of others ? 
What is said of their lack of originality in literature ? What of the special- 
ties of Arabic learning ? of their barbarism ? 

CHAPTER III. 

Section 1.— What is said of Heraclius and the Monothelite heresy ? Of 
Constantine Pogonatus ? Of Justinian Rhhiotmetus ? 

Section 2.— What is said of Leo the Isaurian and the iconoclastic edict ? 
What of the Empress Irene ? 



482 IIlSTOKY OF THE MiDDLE AgES.' 



CHAPTER IV. 
"What contributed to cstabli:*li the temporal independence of the popes ? 
IIow did C'baries ]\lartcl bci^tow ecck'.'<i*tical dignities ? Wbat is eaid of 
f:^..S. Cobimba — Coliimbanu.s— Gall— Adalbert — EDiard — Willi bronl — lioni- 
lace ? What is said of the monastie life at this epoch '/ What of literature 
i.i the East 't la tho West ? What were the Seven Liberal Arts / 

THIRD EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

Section 1.— What cansed the dismemberment of the Carlovingian empire ? 
How was it tirst tlivided y What was tiie result of the battle of Fontanet ? 
^Vhat is said of the Norman siege of Paris ? What was the linal division of 
the emi)ire 'i 

Section j3.— What was the difference between a freehold and a fief ? IIow 
were freeholds turned into fief;: ^ How did Charles the Bald favor the great 
])roprietors 'i What was hoiuago y fealty 1 investiture f What rights had 
liie suzerain over the vassal / Name the various grades of the feudal 
I'ierarehy. IIow was feudalism introduced into the Church? 

Stcfioib 3.— Who was Hugli Capet, and how did he come to the throne of 
France ? What was the origin ox hereditary tuccebsion to the throne ? 
AVhat was the Truce of God y 

CHAPTER II. 

/S'C'f/io??. 1.— What were the principal Saracen strongholds in the Mediter- 
ranean ? What is said of the Saracens in Italy ? in France ? in the Alps ? 
What of the first appearance of the Magyars iu Europe ? What is said of 
'the convtTsion of Yaic ? 

Section x; —Who were the Northmen? Relate the conversion of the 
Russians. Wluit is said of the Northmen's discoveries ? What of Alfred 
tlie Great at Eg))ert's Stone ? What is the supposed origin of the jury ? 
What \\as tlie \Vitenagemot ? How did Alfred tlie Great encourage learn- 
ing ? What was the "Day of the great Combat"? Describe Sweyn"s 
landing in England, and his vengeance. Give the anecdote of Canute tho 
Great at tiie sea-shore. What was the treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte ? 

Section .3.— What is said of the battle of Caune ? What of Leo IX. and 
the Normans ? What instance occurred later of Norman loyalty to the 
popes ? IIow was the kingdom of the Two Sicilies establislied ? _ What 
was William of Normandy's claim to the English crown ? Describe tlio 
battle of Hastings. What is said of the " Camp of Refuge " ? What was 
the Doomsday Book ? the curfew ? the " Presentment of Englishry " ? Did 
any good result to England from the Normau conquest ? 

CHAPTER III. 

Section 1.— Who were the last two Carlovingians of Germany ? Wliat is 
said of Henry tlie Fowler's accession ? What of his caniijaign against the 
Magyars ? What characterized the accession of Otho the Great ? 

Section 2.— Relate tiio vicissitudes of Berenger's attempts to gain power. 
Name the independent principalities of Italy at this time. 

Section 3. What is said of the battle of the Lech ? Relate the circum- 
stances of Pope John XII. 's accession; of Otho's coronation as emi)eror : 
of Otho's setting up an anti-pope. What is said of the elective quality or 
Geruian royalty at this time ? How did the family of Franconia come to 
the throne ? 

Section 4.— What is said of Cis-Juran Burgundy ? What of Trans-Juran 
Burgundy ? 

CHAPTER TV. 

Section 1. — What is said of the last two great caliphs of Cordova ? What 
of Al-Mansur ? What were the i)rincipal achievements of the first king of 
Castile ? What is said of the Cid ? What of the Karmatians ? the Ismal'li- 
ans ? the Assassins ? 

Section 2.— ^Vhat is said of Photius's consecration? of his reproaches 



Review Questions. 483 

Rgaingt the Eoman Chinch ? What characterized the rcigiis of Leo the 
PJiiloKopher and Coiistaurine Porphyroyenitus 't What Byzantine eniperor::! 
vvon !--oinc' glory at this; period y How aid the patriarch Micliael Cerularius 
complete the schism of ihe Greeli Church 't 

CHAPTER V. 

Section 1.— What is said of the reciprocal support of tlie popes and the 
emperors at this time ? What of the heresy of the Manichteans '? Vv'hat 
bad elfect did feudalism have on the clergy y What is said of the Abbey of 
Chiny y What of Guido of Arezzo y Of Pope Sylvester 11. y 

ISedioii t'.— Relate tlie labors of St. Anscarius. IIow was Christianity 
established in Denmark ? iu Sweden y Uow did the Norwegians gain their 
lirst kuowledire of Cliristianity 'i 

A^'tr/'/oMo.— What was I he nature of Slavic mythology ? What is said of 
Slavic liekleness iu religion at this time y Who were the chief apostles of 
the Slavic nations 'i What is said of the first translation of the Scripture.^ 
into Slavonian ? What drew the Bulgarians into schism ? What motive 
induced the Poles to adopt Christianity y What is said of the conversion of 
tiie Russians y What resulted from King Stephen's marriage to a German 
princess y What is said of the Church"s conquests from heathenism ? How 
v/as a large part of Europe changed by these couversious ? 



FOURTH EFOCIL 

CHAPTER I. 

Section 1.— What sin most afflicted the Church in the eleventh century ? 
What was the chief cause of the disorders in the Church at this tuiie ? Re- 
late the events of Hildebrand's monastic life. Describe an Ordeal of Fire at 
Florence. What was St. Gregory YlL's first measure of reform? How 
was it met by Henry IV. ? How did the Pope enforce liis decree y Describe 
the meeting at Canossa. How did Henry get himself crowned ? Give the 
circtmistances of Gregory's death. What were Pope Urban II.'s principal 
achievements ? How did Henry spend the last years of his life y What 
compromise did Pope Pascal II. make with Henry V. ? What was the 
terms of the Concordat of Worms ? 

Section 2.— What is said of the growth of independence among the Italian 
cities y What was the carroccio y What were Arnold of Brescia's teach- 
ings ? Give an example of heresy appealing to absolution ? What was the 
dispute between Conrad and Henry the Proud ? Describe the assault on 
Winsberg Castle, and its capture. What was Arnold of Brescia's fate ? 
How did Frederick Barbarossa deal with Rome ? with Milan ? What is said 
of the Lombard League '? Describe the meeting of Pope Alexander III. and 
Frederick Barbarossa at Venice. What of the government of the Italian 
republics ? their politics ? What of the conflict between Pope Innocent III. 
and Otho IV. ? How did Frederick II. display his hypocrisy ? What pro- 
mises made at his coronation did he break y What is said of the Decretals 
of Raymond of Pefiafort ? How did Frederick 11. employ Saracens in 
Italy y What took place at the Council of Lyons concerning the emperor y 
What was the character of Frederick II. ? What is said of the Giielphs and 
Ghibelines in Italy ? What was Conradin's fate ? What is meant by the 
Long Interregnum ? 

CHAPTER 11. 

Section 1.— What is said of the veneration for the Holy Land ? How did 
the Mussulmans treat the pilgrims ? How did the Seljukians Turks first 
appear in Asia Minor ? What is said of their dominion under Malek-Shah ? 
What is said of the Old Man of the Mountain and his followers y IIow did 
Alexis Comnenns display his perfidy y Who was Peter the Hermit, and how 
did he appeal to Europe ? What is said of Pope Urlxxn II. and the Council 
of Clermont ? What was the fortune of Peter the Hermit's armv y De- 
scribe the composition of the regular army in the first Crusade. How did 
Alexis deal with the Crusaders ? Describe their operations on the march to 



484 History of the Middle Ages, 

Antioch ; at Antioch ; their siogc and takin"; of Jerusalem; the choice and 
coionaiion of the tirst king of Jerusalem. What was the organization and 
subsequent career of the Knight.s Hosjjitalers 't Of the Templars y 

iSecdoii XJ. — What caused the second Crusade ? What nations took part in 
this Crusade, and what route did each take ? What is said of Damietta ? 
Of the battle of Tiberias '/ Of iSaladin's tithe ? What nations entraged in 
tlie third Crusade ? What is said of Frederick Barbarossa in this Crusade '? 
What of the rivalry between Philip Augustus and Kichard Cauir de Lion ? 
What of Richard at Acre V Of his exploits in Palestine ■; Of his imprison- 
ment and release ? What was the origin, organization, and career of the 
Teutonic Knights ? 

Section 3.— How did Dandolo shame the avarice of his fellow-citizens dur- 
ing the fourth Crusade ? How did the Crusaders behave at Constantinople ? 
How was the Lower Empire parcelled out ? What was the after-history of 
the Latin empire of Constantinople ? What was the motive of the Chil- 
dren's Crusade ? What was its fate ? Describe John of Brienne's cam- 
paigns in Egypt during the fifth Crusade. What were Frederick ll.'s ex- 
ploits in the sixth Crusade ? 

Section 4. —What was the cause of the seventh Crusade ? Why was it 
directed against Egypt and not against Jerusalem ? What success'had it ? 
What was the cause of the eighth Crusade 'i What its result ? What effect 
had the Crusades on the commerce, on the manufactures of Europe ? 
W^hat important political effect had they '? How did they influence the arts ? 
the sciences ? What were the grades of knighthood, and what the requi- 
site age and occupation of each ? Describe tlie preparation for receiving 
knighthood ; the ceremony of knighting ; the ceremony of degrading a 
knight. What was the effect of clu.valry'on manners ? 

CHAPTER III. 

Section 1.— How did the beaten Moors avenge themselves on Alfonso the 
Brave ? Wliat is said of Affonso I. of Portugal ? What of L^rraca of Cas- 
tile •? Of Alfonso the Battler ? W'hat orders of chivalry arose at this time 
in Spain ? Describe Mohammed's invasion of Spain ; the battle of Tolosa. 
What were James the Conqueror's principal achievements '? How did St. 
Ferdinand extend his dominion ? Wliat was his character ? Where and 
when was gunpowder first used in Europe ? 

Section 2.— What was the heresy of the Albigenses ? WHiat powerful 
noble sustained them ? Who v/as Simon of Montfort 't Describe Simon's 
conduct at Muret. What jvere the terms of the treaty of Meaux ';■ 

Section 3.— What was the origin of the Knights of the Sword 'i What did 
the Teutonic Knights accomplish in Prussia y 

CHAPTER IV. 

Section 1.— What was the dispute between Philip and William the Con- 
queror ? WHiat is said of the rise of free cities in Europe ? W' hat of the 
origin of communes ? Wliat were the privileged cities y What resulted 
from the growing importance of cities '? What is said of Philip Augustus 
and John^of England ? Wliat success had St. Louis against the English ? 
How did he govern France ? , „^„,. 

^■(r/^o» 2.— WHiat was the condition of affairs in England under Wilham 
Rufus and his minister ? How did Henry I. win the affection of his Anglo- 
Saxon sul)iects ? What was the Battle of the Standard ? What was Eng- 
land's condition under Stephen ? What is said of Henry II.'s pomp at 
Paris, and of his ambassador there ? Wliat was the dispute over the Con- 
Ptitutions of Clarendon ? AVhat is said of Thomas a Beckct's exile 'i Of his 
martyrdom ? W^hat tribes successively settled in Ireland ? What heroes 
are mentioned before the fiftli century ? Ilcnv were the clans organized and 
governed? What was the relii^donof the ancient Irish? Wliat is said of 
the introduction of Christianity ? Of the s])read of learning ? Describe the 
Ostmen's invasion and settlement. How did the battle of Clontarf result ? 
What was the cause of MacMurroch's flight ? What is said of Stromrbow's 
landing and first attempts at conquest ? What success attended Edward 
Bruce's attemiits ? What was the Statute of Kilkenny ? How did Henry 
geek to make amends for the murder of St. Thomas a Becket ? How was 



IlEI'^iew Questions. 485 

Henry treated by his wife and children ? Why Avas the interdict pro- 
claimed in En'Wand ? How was John reconciled with the pope y What is 
said o^' the barons at liiinnymede, and of Magna Charta y What is said .of 
the first open sea engagement between England and France ? What was 
the Mad Parliament, and why did it assemble ? What was the origin of the 
House of Commons ? Describe the battle of Evesham, 

CHAPTER V. 

Section 1 —What was the extent of Scandinavia in the twelfth century ? 
Wliat were the sa^-as ? Relate the exploits of Sigurd of Norway. What is 
said of St Eric ot°Sweden ? What of Sweyn and his five sons in Denmark ? 
How did Waldemar the Great govern the country ? Relate the achievements 
of Waldemar the Victorious. , ,, . ■,... „r, . 

Sc^cfion 3.— Mention the Slavic nations and their condition. What was the 
Golden Bull ? What princes of Poland were distinguished m the eleventh 
and twelfth centuries ? How did religious schism cut oii Russia trom ^\ es- 
tern civilization and support ? What caused great discord in Russia at this 
time ' 

Sec'fion 3.— Narrate the events of Jenghis Khan's boyhood and early ca- 
reer : his wars against the Tartar empire ; against the Khorasraians ; against 
tiie Russian-. How were the Mongolians met in Hungary ■- in Poland ? 
What is said of the destruction of the Assassins ? What is said of the Mon- 
gols at Pekin ? 

CHAPTER VI. 

Section l.—Whcd great things took place during the "Ages of Faith"? 
How wei'e the popes able to secure liberty for the people, peace between na- 
tions, and subjection to lawful authority '? What is said of the monastic 
orders of Cluny ? of the Good Men ? of the Carthusians ? of the Cistercians ? 
What is said of the Regular Canons ? of the Premonstratensians ? What 
rules were followed by Ihe several military orders ? What distinguished 
friars from monks ? What is said of the Dominicans ? of the Franciscans ? 
of the Carmelites ? of the Augustinians ? What is meant by first, second, 
and third orders ? What is said of the charitable orders of the Holy Ghost ? 
of the Trinitarians ? of Mercy ? What of the Servites ? How were the 
Baltic tribes brought to the faith ? How came Buddhism by ceremonies 
and observances similar to those of the Church ? Who was Prester John ? 
What attempts were afterwards made to reach his empire ? V/hy w\as the 
Inquisition established ? Who was responsible for the severe punishment 
inflicted on heretics ? 

Section 2.— What gave birth to the science of scholastic theology ? What 
is said of nominalism and realism ? Wliat of Laniranc — St. Anselm — Abe- 
lard— the " Master of the Sentences "—St. Bernard— A verroes—Maimonide^ 
— Albertus Magnus— the Angelic Doctor— the Seraphic Doctor y How was 
the study of civil law revived ? How was the study of canon law encour- 
aged ? What is said of the rise of the universities ? What is said of the 
two great cycles of romances ? What were the mystery-plays ? How did the 
Gothic replace the classic styles of architecture ? What is said of the other 
arts at this time ? 

FIFTH EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

Section 1.— Wliat led to the bull C'lericis laicos ? How was it met by Philip 
the Fair ? Describe the dispute over the papal legate. What was the cause 
and the substance of the bull TJaam sanctam? How did the serviUty of the 
French States-General favor schism ? Describe the outrage on the sovereign 
pontitf at Anagni. What is meant by the Renaissance '? (Note.) How did 
the papal residence come to be fixed at Avignon ? Wliat was done at the 
Council of Vieiine ? What was probably Philip's motive in demanding the 
suppression of the Templars ? What is said of the attempted Roman 
republic '? 

Section 2.— Relate the circurastancer^ of Urban "NT^.'s election at Rome. 
What caused the two " obediences "? What rules did St. Antoninus lay down 
for the faithful ? How did the University gf Paris attempt to heal the great 



486 History of the Middle Ages. 



Bchism ? "What success had the Council of Pisa in tlie same matter ? TIow 
did the Council of Constance end tlie schism t What is said of Jolm Ilus.s ? 
How did the Council of Basle behave y How was the Greek Church 
reconciled at the Council of i'loreuce j* 

CHAPTER II. 

Section 1.— What was the extent of Pliilip the Fair's dominions ? How 
did the Welsh contend for their independ'-iice 'i What is the origin of the 
tirle of Prince of Wales ? Describe liie dispute over the crown in Scotland. 
^>'hat is said of Robert Bruce and the battle of Bannockburn V How did the 
English sovereigns come to call themselves '" King of France " ? What is 
said of the battle of Crecy 'l of Poitiers :' What outbreaks took place in 
Fiance during the captivity of John the Good ? What is said of tue Con- 
stable Bu Guesclin y 

Section 2.— What were Wickliffe's doctrmes, and how were they cncour- 
agt'd in England y What is said of the communistic notions of his follow- 
t-rs y Bescribe Wat Tyler's revolt. How did Henry of Lancaster make 
himself king y What was characteristic of the Stuart dynasty y What per- 
fidy was he guilty of to the Scots y How did Henry Y. change his ways on 
coming to the throne y Bescribe his militarj^ operations in France. How 
was France governed during Charles VI. 's incapacity y What is said of 
Joan of Arc ? How was the Hundred Years' ^Val• between France and Eng- 
land ended ? Who was Jack Cade y 

CHAPTER III. 

Section 1.— How did the family of Hapsburg reach the imperial throne ? 
Relate the vicissitudes of Louis of Bavaria's reign. What was the Golden 
Bull ? W' hat is said of Wenceslaus' reign in Bohemia y Bescribe the ope- 
rations of the Taborites, 

Section 2.— What is said of the Ilapsburgs' connection with Switzerland ? 
Describe the battle of Morgarten ; Sempach ; Ka3fe]s. 

Section S.— What WAS the policy of the Giielphs in Italy? Give the cir- 
cumstances of the Sicilian Vespers. How did Robert of Anjou behave as 
imperial vicar ? What is said of the great Lombard family of Visconti ? 
Name the possessions of Venice and of "Genoa in the thirteenth and four- 
teenth centuries. Describe the siege of Venice. How was Venice governed? 
M'hat is said of the families of Medici, Gtmzaga, Sforza ? What was the 
political condition of Italy in the fifteenth century ? 

CHAPTER IV. 
WTiat is said of the kingdom of "NTavarre ? "S^Tiat of Portugal nnderDiniz ? 
What of the career of Alfonso XT. of Castile ? What crowned monsters 
afliicted Spain at this time ? How did Pedro the Just avenge the cruel fate 
of Ifiez de Castro ? Give a brief account of the career of Ferdinand the Just 
of Aragon and Castile ; of Isabella the Catholic. What is said of Henry of 
A%isa, Infante of Portugal ? 

CHAPTER V. 

Section i. — Relate the achievements of the "Semirarais of the North'' 
before the Union of Calmar ; during and after that event. 

Section 2. — Give some instances of Russian servility to barbarian hordes, 
■^liat two Slavic nations loyally battled for the Church and civilization ? 
How did Casimir the Great rule Poland ? Describe the conversion of Lithu- 
ania. WTiat success did Sigismund meet as king of Hungary ? 

CHAPTER W. 

Section 1. — How was the revived Greek Empire harassed about the end of 
the thirteenth century ? What is said of its poverty under Cantacuzenus ? 
What was the origin of the Ottoman Turks ? How did they gain a foothold 
in Europe ? Give a description of the origin, organization, and characteris- 
tics of the janizaries. Give a summary of the principal events of Bayazid's 
life. 

Section 2.— Give a brief account of Timur's career. Of John Hunyades's. 
Of Scanderbeg's. Describe the siege and taking of Constantinople. 



APPENDIX. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HIS- 
TORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 

Fourth Century. 

Final partition of the Roman Empire, 395 ; Alaric in Greece, 

39G ; Disgrace of Eutropius, 399 ; Alaric in Italy, 400. 

Fifth Century, 
Second invasion of Alaric in Italy — Pollentia, 402 ; Invasion of 
Radagasius — Florence, 406 ; Great invasion of Ganl, 407 ; 
Death of Stilicho, 408 ; Siege of Rome by Alaric, 408, 409, 
410, and death of Alaric ; Foimdation of the kingdom of 
the Burgundians, 413 ; Vandals, Suevi, and Alans in 
Spain, Visigoths in Aquitania, 414 ; Wallia, 415, and The- 
odoric I., 419-451, in Aquitania and in Spain ; Valentinian 
III., Emperor of the West, 425-455 ; Vandals in Africa, 
429-535 ; First invasion of Saxons and Angles in Britain, 
449 ; Attila in Gaul — Chalons-sur-Marne, 451 ; Attila be- 
fore St. Leo, 452 ; Death of Attila, 453 ; of Aetius, 454 ; 
of Valentinian III., 455 ; Sack of Rome by Genseric, 455 ; 
Ricimer and the Patrician Orestes — End of the Western 
Empire, 476 ; Heresy of ISTestorius, 429, and Eutyches, 
449, in the East ; Marcian, 450, and Leo I., 457, orthodox 
emperors ; Zeno, 474, and Anastasius, 491, abettors of 
heresies ; Mission and labor of St. Patrick in the conver- 
sion of Ireland, 433-465 ; Foundation of the Saxon king- 
doms of Kent, 455, and Sussex, 491, in Britain j Estab- 
lishment of the Franks under Clovis in Gaul, 486 ; 
Conversion of the Franks, 496 ; Death of Odoacer — Estab- 
lishment of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric in Italy, 493 , 
Caledonia, or Scotland, settled by Scots from Ireland, 498 , . 
Victory of Clovis over Gundcbald, 500. 
487 



488 Appendix. 

Sixth Century. 

Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy completed, 58 i, conversion begun, 
597 ; Battle of Yoglade, 507 ; Subjection of the Burguu- 
dians, 534 ; Expeditions of the Franks in Thuringia, 
in Italy and Spain — Subjection of the Suevi, 585 ; Conver- 
sion of the Visigoths, 587 ; End of the Vandal kingdom, 
535 ; Belisarius in Italy, 530 ; Narses, 553 ; End of the 
kingdom of the Ostrogoths, 553 ; Foundation of the king- 
dom of the Lombards — Alboin, 5G8-573 ; Justin I., Empe- 
ror, 518 ; Reign of Justinian, 537-565 ; Roman law — St. 
Sophia — Justin IL, 5G5 ; Pope St. Gregory the Great, 590- 
GD4. 

Seventh Century. 

Bloody usurpation of Phocas, 603 ; Accession of Heraclius, GIO ; 
Clotaire II. sole king of France, G13 ; Taking of Jerusalem 
by Chosroes II., C15 ; Retaliation of Heraclius, 633-G37 ; 
Flight or Ilegira of Mohammed, C33 ; Death of ]\Ioham- 
med, G33 ; The Mohammedans invade Syria, 633, Persia, 
G3G, Egypt, 638, all Northern Africa, 645-700 ; the Om- 
miade caliphs, 6G0-750 ; Siege of Constantinople, 671-078 ; 
Capture and destruction of Carthage, G93 ; Condemnation 
of the Monothelitcs, 630 ; Battle of Testry, C87 ; Pcpiii of 
Hcristal, GS7-714. 

Eifjlith Century. 
Invasion of Spain by Tarik and battle of Xeres, 711 ; Death of 
Pepin, 714 ; Charles Martel, Duke of the l^ranks, 715 ; 
Second siege of Constantinople, 717 ; The Iconoclasts, 
736 ; Invasions of the Saracens in France — Battle of Poi- 
tiers, 733 ; Deaths of Charles Martel, Leo the Isaurian, and 
Pope St. Gregory III., 741 ; Invasion of Ireland by the 
Danes, or Ostmen, 748 ; Pepin the Short sole duke, 747, 
then king of the Franks, 753 ; The Abbassidc caliphs, 750; 
Caliphate of Cordova, 756 ; Death of Pepin the Short, 763 ; 
Charlemagne sole king of the Franks, 771 ; End of the 
Lombard kingdom, 77 " ; Wars against the Saxons, 773- 
806 ; Death of Roland, 778 ; Harun-al-Rashid, 786-809 ; 
Condemnation of the Iconoclasts, 787 ; Irene, Empress of 
the East, 797 ; Charlemagne, Emperor of the West, De- 
cember 35, 800. 



Appendix, 489 

Ninth Century. 
Egbert the Great, King of Wessex, 801, afterwards of tlio whole 
Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, 827 ; First descent of the Nor- 
mans in France, 808 ; Death of Charlemagne and acces- 
sion of Louis the Debonnaire, 814 ; Partition of tlie Frank- 
ish states, 817 ; Birth of Charles the Bald, 823 ; Deposition 
and restoration of Louis, 830 ; His death, 840 ; Battle of 
Fontanet, 841 ; Treaty and partition of Verdun, 843 ; 
Ravages of the Normans, 845 ; Intrusion of Photius, 857 ; 
Fourth Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, 8G9 ; Ori- 
gin of the Russian monarchy— Rurik, 862 ; Charles the 
Bald emperor, 875 ; Edict of Kiersy and deatli of the 
emperor, 877 ; New ravages of the Normans on the Seine, 
888 ; Deposition of Charles the Fat and final partition of 
the Frankish empire, 888 ; Death of Eudes, King of 
France, 898, Arnulf, King of Germany and Emperor, 890, 
and Alfred the Great, King of England, 900. 

Tenth Century. 
Rollo, chief of the Normans, 901 ; Foundation of Normandy, 
extinction of the Carlovingians in Germany, and abdica- 
tion of Alfonso the Great, King of Asturias, 911 ; Founda- 
tion of Cluny, 910 ; Beginning of the Fatimites, 908 ; 
Sack of Mecca by the Karmatians, 929 ; The Fatimites at 
Cairo, 960 ; Tlie Gaznevides, 961-1104 ; Abd-er-Rahman 
III. at Cordova, 911-961 ; Accession of Otho the Great to 
the Germanic throne, 9C6 ; Otho, King of Italy, 951, Em- 
peror of the West, 962 ; Basil II., Emperor of the East, 
963-1025 ; St. Vladimir, 980 ; Hugh Capet, 087 ; Pope 
Sylvester II., 999-1003 ; Conversion of the Hungarians, 
1000. 

Eleventh Century. 

Death of the Emperor Otho III., 1002 ; Defeat of the Danes at 
Clontarf, in Ireland, by Brian Boru, 1014 ; Canute the 
Great, King of Denmark and England, 1014 ; Death of 
St. Henry, Emperor, 1024 ; Sancho the Great, King of all 
Christian Spain, 1028 ; Truce of God, 1032 ; Death of 
Rudolph III., last king of Burgundy, 1033 ; Death of the 
Emperor Conrad II., 1039 ; St. Leo IX., Pope, 1040 ; 
Accession of the Emperor Henry IV., 1056 ; St. Gregory 



490 Appendix. 

Vn., Pope, 1073 ; Interview at Canossa, 1077 ; Tancred's 
sons in Italy, 1040 ; William the Conqueror in England, 
1066 ; Origin of the Seljukian Turks, 1037 ; Alexis Com- 
nenus, 1081 ; Council of Clermont and first Crusade, 1095 ; 
Taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, 1099 ; Death of 
Godfrey of Bouillon, 1100 ; Order of Hospitalers, 1100. 

Twelfth Century. 

Order of Templars, 1118 ; Concordat of Worms and end of the 
investitures, 1122 ; Death of the Emperor Henry V., 1125; 
Schism of Anacletus, 1130 ; Roger, King of Sicily, 1137 ; 
Alfonso Ilenriquez, king of Portugal, 1139 ; Guelphs and 
Ghibelincs in Germany — Accession of the Ilohenstaufens, 
1137 ; Foundation of the sect of Almohades, 1140 ; Sec- 
ond Crusade, 1147 ; Death of St. Bernard, 1153 ; Frederick 
Barbarossa, Emperor, 1152, and Alexander III., Pope, 
1150 ; The Lombard league, 1169 ; Peace of Constance, 
1183 ; Waldemar the Great, King of Denmark, 1157 ; 
The Plantagenets in England, 1153 ; JMartyrdom of St. 
Thomas ^ Beckct, 1170; Invasion of Ireland by Anglo- 
Normans under Henry II., 1171 ; Taking of Jerusalem by 
Saladin, 1187 ; Third Crusade, 1189 ; Foundation of the 
Teutonic Order, 1190 ; Pontificate of Innocent III., 119&- 
1210. 

Thirteenth Century. 

Fourth Crusade, 1201 ; Latin Empire of Constantinople, 1204 ; 
Crusade against the Albigenses, 1208 ; Battle of Muret, 
1213 ; Mendicant orders, 1210 ; Battle of Las-Xavas-de 
Tolosa, 1212 ; Battle of Bouvines, 1214 ; Magna Charta 
in England, 1215 ; Ravages of Jenghis Khan in Ivhorasmia, 
1217 ; Fifth Crusade, 1218 ; Frederick IT. crowned empe- 
ror, 1220 : Death of Philip Augustus, 1223, Louis YIIL, 
1220, and accession of St. Louis ; Death of Jenghis 
Khan, 1227 ; Frederick II. excommunicated at the first 
Council of Lyons, 1245 ; The Long Interregnum, 1250- 
1273 ; Mongols in Hungary, 1241 ; Seventh Crusade, 1248; 
Eighth Crusade, 1270, and death of St. Louis ; Election 
of Rudolph of ILapsburg, 1273 ; The Sicilian Vespers, 
1282 ; Boniface VIII , Pope, 1201 ; Universal jubilee, 1300. 



Appendix. 491 

Fourteenth Century. 

Disputes of Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII., 1301 ; Election 
of Clement V., 1305 ; Trial of the Templars, 1309 ; Eng- 
lish routed at Bannockburn, 1314 ; John XXII., Pope, at 
Avignon, 1316 ; Death of Othman, 1326 ; Louis of Bava- 
ria at Rome— Philip of Valois, King of France, 1328 ; 
Beginning of the Hundred Years' War, 1337 ; Battle of 
Crecy, 1846 ; The Black Plague, 1348 ; Charles IV., Em- 
peror, 1349 ; Battle of Poitiers, 1356 ; Treaty of Bretigny, 
1360 ; Statute of Kilkenny, 1367 ; Death of Pedro the 
Cruel, 1369, of Edward III., 1877, and of Gregory XI. ; 
Great schism of the West, 1378 ; Wenceslaus, Emperor, 
1378, deposed, 1400 ; John of Avisa, King of Portugal, 
1383. 

Fifteenth Century. 

Battle of Angora, 1402 ; Death of Timur, or Tamerlane, 1405 ; 
Council of Pisa, 1409, of Constance, 1414 ; Battle of Agin- 
court, 1415 ; Election of Martin V., 1417 ; Death of 
Charles VI., King of France, 1422 ; Joan of Arc, 1429 ; 
Treaty of Arras, 1435 ; Council of Basle, 1431 ; End of the 
Hussite war, 1434 ; Death of the Emperor Sigismund, 
1437 ; (Ecumenical Council of Florence, 1439 ; Abdication 
of the last anti-pope, 1449 ; Taking of Constantinople by 
the Turks, 1453. 



49^ 



A PPKXDIX, 



LIST OF ROMAN PONTIFFS, 

WITH BIRTHPLACE, DATES OF ACCESSION AND DEATH, AND 

LENGTH OF PONTIFICATE, AS IN THE BASILICA OF 

ST. PAUL, ROME. 



NAME. 



Date of 
Acces- 
sion. 



[. St. Peter, Native of Bethsaida In Galilee, 
Prince of the Apostles, who received from 
our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ the Su- 
preme Pontificate, to be transmitted to his 
successors ; and, having resided for a time 
at Antioch, established his See at Rome, 
where he suffered martyrdom on the 29th 



of June, 67. 

St. Linus, Volterra, Mart. 



St. 

St. C-letus, Rome, Mart. 

St. Clement L, Rome, Mart 

St. Anacletus, Greece, Mart 

St. Evaristus, Syria, Mart 

St. Alexander L, Rome, Mart.. 

St. Sixtus L, Rome, Mart 

St. Telesphorus, Greece, Mart.. 

St. Hyginus, Greece, Mart 

St. Pius L, Aquileia, Mart 

St. Anicetus, Syria. Mart 

St. Soter, Naples, Mart 

St. Eleutherius, Epirus, Mart.. 

St. Victor I., Africa, Mart 

St. Zephyrinus, Rome, Mart... 

St. Calixtus I., Rome, Mart 

St. Urban L, Rome, Mart 

St. Pontian, Rome, Mart 

St. Anterus, Greece, Mart 

St. Fabian, Rome, M art 

St. Cornelius, Rome, Mart 

St. Lucius L, Rome, Mart 

St. Stephen L, Rome, Mart 

St. Sixtus IL, Greece, Mart ... 

St. Dionysius, Turin 

St Felix L, Rome, Mart 

St. Eutychian, Tuscany, Mart. 

St. Caius, Dalmatia, Mart 

St. Marcellinus, Rome, Mart... 
St. Marcellus L, Rome, Mart... 

^t. Eusebius, Calabria 

St. Melchiade=!, Africa 

St. Sylvester L, Rome 

St. Marcus, Rome ' . . 

St. Julius I., Rome 

St. Liberius, Rome 

St. Felix II., Rome 

St. Damasus, Spain 



Date Duration 

of I of 

Death. Pontificate. 



^l 


78 


II 


3 


12 


7a 


90 


12 


I 


:i 


90 


100 


10 


2 


10 


100 


112 


12 


10 


7 


112 


121 


9 


7 


2 


121 


132 


10 


7 


3 


132 


142 


9 


3 


21 


142 


154 


n 


3 


2t 


154 


153 


4 


3 


8 


ISS 


167 


8 


3 


3 


1O7 


175 


8 


4 


20 


175 


182 


7 


3 


21 


182 


193 


II 


4 


5 


193 


203 


10 


2 


ID 


203 


220 


17 


2 


10 


221 


227 


5 


2 


10 


227 


23 < 


6 


7 


4 


233 


238 


5 


2 


7 


23a 


239 


I 


I 


10 


240 


253 


n 


i 


lO 


254 


255 


I 


10 





255 


257 


I 


4 


12 


257 


260 


3 


3 


20 


260 


•:6i 





II 


13 


261 


272 


II 


3 


14 


272 


275 


2 


5 


25 


275 


2S3 


8 


10 


^ 


283 


296 


12 


4 


9 


290 


301 


7 


II 


3 


304 


309 


4 


I 


21 


309 


3it 


2 


I 


25 


311 


314 


3 


7 


7 


314 


337 


23 


10 


27 


337 


340 


2 


8 


21 


341 


352 


ir 


2 


6 


352 


363 


10 


7 


3 


-,63 


365 


I 


3 


2 


3fco 


384 


18 


2 


10 



Appendix, 



493 



NAME, 



Date of 


Date 


Acces- 


of 


sion. 


Death 


A.D. 


A.D. 


3S4 


398 


399 


402 


402 


417 


417 


418 


418 


423 


423 


432 


432 


440 


440 


461 


461 


468 


468 


483 


4^3 


492 


492 


496 


496 


498 


498 


514 


514 


523 


523 


526 


S2b 


530 


530 


532 


532 


535 


535 


536 


536 


533 


533 


555 


555 


560 


560 


573 


574 


578 


57a 


590 


590 


604 


604 


606 


607 


607 


608 


615 


61S 


619 


619 


625 


625 


638 


640 


640 


640 


642 


642 


649 


649 


65s 


655 


656 


657 


672 


672 


676 


676 


678 


678 


682 


683 


683 


684 


685 


685 


686 


686 


687 


687 


701 


701 


705 


705 


707 


708 


708 


708 


715 


715 


731 


731 


741 


741 


752 


752 


7S2 


752 


757 



40. St. Siricius, Rome 

41. St. Anastasius I., Rome 

42. St. Innocent I., Albano 

43. St. Zozimiis, Greece 

44. St. Boniface I., Rome 

45. St. Celestine I., Rome 

46. St. Sixtus III., Rome 

47. St. Leo I. (the Great), Tuscany. 

48. St. Hilary, Sardinia 

49. St, Simplicius, Tivoli , 

50. St. Felix III , Rome , 

51. St. Gelasius I,, Africa 

52. St. Anastasius II.. Rome 

53. St. Symmachus, Rome , 

54. St. Hormisdas, Frosinone 

55. St. John I., Tuscany, Mart , 

56. St. Felix IV., Benevento 



57. Boniface II., Rome 

58. John II., Rome 

59. St. Agapitus, Rome 

60. St. Silverius, Frosinone, Mart 

€1. Vigilius. Rome 

62. Pelagius I,, Rome 

63. John III., Rome 

64. Henedict I. , Rome 

65. PelagiusII., Rome 

66. St. Gregory I. (the Great), Rome, 

67. Sabinianus, Volterra 

68. Boniface III.. Rome 

69. St. Boniface IV., Marso ... 

70. St. Adeodatus 1., Rome 

71. Boniface V , Naples 

72. Honorius I., Capua 

73. Severinus, Rome 

74. John IV., Dalmatia 

75. Theodorus I., Greece 

76. St. Martin I., Todi, Mart 

77. St. Eugenius I., Rome 

78. St. Vitalian, Segni 

79. Adeodatus II., Rome 

80. Domnus I., Rome 

81. St. Agatho, Greece 

82. St, Leo II., Sicily 

83. St. Benedict II., Rome 

84. John v., Antioch 

83, Conon, Thracia 

86, St. Sergius I. , Siculiana 

87, John VI., Greece 

83. John VII., Greece 

89. Sisinnius, Syria 

go. Constantine, Syria 

91, St. Gregory II., Rome 

92, St, Gregory III., Syria 

93, St. Zacharias. Greece 

9|. Stephen II., Rome 

95. Stephen HI., Rome 



494 



ArPEXDix. 



NAME. 



96. St. Paul I., Rome 

97, Stephen IV., Syracuse. 

93. Adrian I., Rome 

95, St. Leo III., Rome 

100. Stephen V., Rome 

101. St. Paschal I., Rome... 

102. Eugenius II., Rome... 

103. Valentine. Rome 

104. Gregory IV., Rome 

105. Sergius II., Rome 

io5. St. Leo IV., Rome. 



107. Benedict III., Rome 

io3. St. Nicholas I. (the Great), Rome. 
10). Adrian II., Rome 

110. John VIII., Rome 

111. Marinus I., Gallicia 

112. Adrian III , Rome 

113. Stephen VI., Rome 

114. Formosus, Ostia 

115. Boniface VI 

116. Stephen VII., Rome 

117. Romanus, Gallese 

Theodorus II., Rome 

John IX., Tivoli 

120. Benedict IV., Rome 

121. Leo v., Ardea 

122. Chri.stophorus, Rome 

123. Sergiiis III., Rome 

124. Anastasius III., Rome 

12;. Land lis, Sabina 



i3. 
119. 



John X., Ravenna. 
Leo VI. 



126 

127. Leo VI., Rome, 

128. Stephen VIII., Rome. 

129. John XI., Rome 

130. Leo VII., Rome 

131. Stephen IX., Rome... 

132. Marinas II., Rome... 

133. Agapitus II., Rome... 

134. John XII., Rome 

13^. Benedict V., Rome... 

136. John XIII., Rome.... 

137. Benedict VI., Rome... 

138. Domnus II , Rome ... 

139. Benedict VII., Rome. 

140. John XIV., Pavia 

141. Boniface VII., France. 

142. John XV., Rome 

14?. John XVI 

144. Gregorv V., Germany. 

145. John XVII 

14-). Sylvester II., Francs ., 

147. John XVIII.. Rome.., 

148. John XIX., Rome 

149. Sergiun IV., Rome 

150. Benedict VIII., Rome. 

151. John XX., Rome 



Date of 

Acces- 
sion. 



A.D. 

757 
768 
771 

795 
816 

V^ 
824 

827 

827 

844 

847 

855 

858 

867 

872 

882 

884 

88s 

891 

896 

897 



900 
903 
903 
904 
911 
913 
9^5 
928 
929 

936 
939 

946 
95'5 
964 
955 
972 
973 
975 
9S4 
985 
935 
950 

99" 
9=9 
999 
100 J 
1003 
1009 
1012 
1024 



Date 

of 

Death 



767 
771 
795 
816 

824 
827 
827 
844 
847 
855 
853 
867 
872 
882 
884 
£85 
891 
S96 
896 
£93 
89S 
89S 
900 
903 
903 
904 
9n 

913 
914 
928 
929 
931 
936 
939 
942 
946 
956 
964 
965 
972 

973 

973 

9S4 

985 

9S5 

C96 

996 

999 

999 

1003 

1003 

1009 

1012 

1024 

.1033 



Duration 

of 

Pontificate. 



Appendix. 



495 



NAME. 



152. Benedict IX., Rome 

153. Gregory VI., Rome (abdicated in 1046). 

154. Clement II., Saxony 

155. Damasns II., Bavaria 

156. St. Leo IX., Germany 

157. Victor II., Svevia 

158. Stephen X., Germany 

159. Benedict X , 

160. Nicholas II., France , 

161. Alexander II.. Milan 

162. St. Gregory VII., Soana 

16 j. Victor III., Benevento 

164. Urban II., Reims 

165. Paschal II., Tuscany 

166. Gelasius II , Gaeta 

167. Calixtus II., Burgundy 

i63. Honorius II., Bologna 

169. Innocent II., Rome 

170. Celestine II., Citta di Castello 

171. Lucius II., Bologna 

172. B. Eugenius HI. , Montemagno 

173. Anastasius IV., Rome 

174. Adrian IV. , England 

175. Alexander III., Siena 

176. Lucius III., Lucca 

177. Urban III., Milan 

178. Gregory VIII., Benevento 

179. Clement III., Rome 

iSo Celestine III., Rome 

181. Innocent III., Anagni 

182. Honorius III., Rome 

183. Gregory IX., Anagni 

184. Celestine IV., Milan 

185. Innocent IV., Genoa. 

186. Alexander IV. , Anagni 

187. Urban IV., Troyes 

188. Clement IV ..France 

1S9. H. Gregory X., Piacenza 

190. Innocent V., Savoy 

191. Adrian v., Genoa 

192. John XXL, Lisbon 

193. Nicholas III., Rome 

194. Martin IV., France 

195. Honorius IV., Rome 

196. Nicholas IV. , Ascoli 

197. St. Celestine V., Lavoro (resigned) 

198. Boniface VIII., Anagni 

19 J. K. Benedict XL, Treviso 

200. Clement V , Fr. (removed to Avignon).. . 

201. John XXII., France 

202. Benedict XII ., France 

203. Clement VI., France 

204. Innocent VI. , France 

205. B. Urban V., France 

206. Gregory XI.^ Fr. (restored See to Rome). 



Date of 
Acces- 



A.D. 

1033 
1044 
1046 
1048 
1049 
1055 
1057 
105S 

1059 
1061 
1073 
1087 
1088 
1099 
1118 
1119 
1124 
1130 
"43 

1144 
II4S 
1153 

"54 
1159 
1181 
1185 
1187 
1187 
1191 
1198 

I2l6 

1227 
1241 
1243 
1254 
1261 
1265 
1271 
1276 
1276 
1276 
1277 
128 1 
12S5 
12S8 
1294 
1294 
1303 
1305 
1316 
1334 
'342 
1352 
i3f2 
1370 



Date I Duration 

of I of 
Death. ! Pontificate. 



A.D. 

1044 

1047 
1048 
1054 
1057 
1058 

1061 
1073 
1085 
1087 
1009 
1118 
1119 
1124 
1 130 

"43 
1144 

"45 
"53 

"54 
"59 
1181 
"85 
1187 
11S7 

IIQI 
II98 
1216 
1227 
I24I 
1241 
1254 
I261 
1264 
1269 
1276 
1276 
1276 
1277 
1280 
1285 
1287 
1292 

1303 
1304 
I314 
1334 
1342 
1352 
1362 
1370 



21 II 22 



496 



ArPEyDix, 



THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 



Pojjes Sitting at Rome. 

T;rbanVl. elected 1378 

lionifacelX 1389 

Innocent VII 1404 

Gregory XII 1406 



Popes Sittitvj at Avignon. 
Clement VII. (Robert of Gene- 
va) elected 1378 

Benedict XIII. (Peter de Luna). 1394 



Alexander V. 



Popes Sitting at Bologna. 
. . . 1409-1410 I John XXni. 



1410-1415 



AETER THE GEEAT SCHISM. 



Martin V 1417-1431 

Eugenius IV 1431-1447 



Felix v., anti-pope 1439-1449 

Nicholas V 1447-1455 



LIST OF MONARCHS. 



Emperors of the West after Theodosius the Great. 



Honoring 395-423 

Valentinian III 424-455 

Petronius Maximus 455-455 

Avitus 455-456 

Interregnum. 

Majorian 457^01 

Severus II 4(31-4(35 

Interregnum of more trian a 
year. 



Anthemius 467-472 

Olybrius 472-472 

Interregnum. 

Glycerins 474 

Julius Nepos 474-475 

Eomulus Augustulus 4?'5-476 

Kingdom of the Horuli. 

Odoacer 476-193 



Ostrogoth Kings of Italy . 



Theodoric 493-.526 

Athalaric 526-534 

Theodatus 534-536 

Vitiges 536-540 



Theodebald 540-541 

Alaric 541-541 

Totila 541-552 

Teias 552-554 



Kings of the Lomhards. 



Alboin 5.58-.573 

Cleph 573-574 

Interregnum of ten years. 

Autharis 584-590 

Agilulf 591-615 

Adaloald 61.5-625 

Ariovald 625-6.36 

Eotharis 626-6.59 

Eodoald 652-().>i 

Aribert 653-(361 

Godebert 661-(362 

Grimoald 662-671 



Garibald 071-671 

Pertharites 671-686 

Cunibert the Pious. 686-700 

Luitper, eight months 700-701 

Kegilbert 701-701 

Aritbert 701-712 

Luitprand 712-744 

Ilildebrand with Luitprand.. 744-744 

Raehis 744-740 

Astulf 749-7.50 

Didier 750-774 



Vandal Kings in Africa. 



Genscric 428-477 

Huneric 477-484 

Gunthamund 484-496 



Trasamund 4n6-.523 

Ililderic 523-530 

Gelimer 5:30-534 



Appendix. 



497 



Byzantine Emperors. 



Arcadius 395-408 

Theodosius II 408-450 

IMarcian ' 450-457 

Leo 1 457-474 

Leo II., the Younger 474-474 

Zeno 474^91 

Basiliscus 474-491 

Marcian 474-491 

Leoncius 474-491 

Anastasius 1 491-518 

Justin I 518-527 

Justinian 1 527-565 

Justin II 565-578 

Tiberius II 578-582 

Maurice 582-602 

Phocas 602-610 

Heraclius 640-641 

Heraclius Constantine, three 

months C41-641 

Heracleonas, seven months. . . 641-641 

Tiberius, a few days 041-641 

Constans II 641-668 

Constantine III., Pogonatus. . 668-685 

Justinian II 685-695 

Leoncius 695-698 

Absimarus Tiberius 698-705 

Justinian II. restored 705-711 

Philippicus-Bardanes 711-713 

Anastasius II 713-715 

Theodosius III 716-717 

Leo III., Isauricus 717-741 

Constantine v., Copronymus. 741-775 

Leo IV 775-780 

Constantine VI. and Irene... 780-797 

Irene, alone 797-802 

Nicephorus 802-811 

Stauracius 811-811 

Michael Rhangabes 811-813 

Leo the Armenian 813-820 

Michael the Stammerer 820-829 

Theophilus 829-842 



Michael III., the Drunkard. 

Basil the Macedonian 

Leo the Philosopher 

Alexander 

Constantine VI., Porphyro- 
genitus 

Romanus Lecapenus 

Christopher 

Stephen 

Constantine VII 

Constantine, alone 

Romanus II.. 

Nicephorus Phocas 

John Zimisces 

Basil II 

Constantine VIII 

Romaims Argyrus 

Michael IV 

Michael Calaphates 

Zoe and Theodora, sisters, 
two months 

Constantine Monomachus. . 

Theodora 

Michael Stratioticus 

Isaac Comnenus 

Constantine X., Ducas 

Michael Andronicus and 
Constantine Ducas, bro- 
thers 

Romanus Diogenes 

Michael Ducas, alone 

Nicephorus Botaniates 

Alexis Comnenus 

John Comnenus 

^Alanuel Comnenus 

Alexis Comnenus 

Andronicus Comnenus. . . . 

Isaac Angelus 

Alexis Angelus Comnenus. 

Alexis Ducas Murzuphlus . . 



842-867 
867-886 
886-911 
911-912 



■913 



948-959 

959-963 

963-969 

969-976 

963-1025 

1025-1028 

1028-1034 

1034r-1041 

1041-1042 

1043-1042 
1042-1054 
1054-1056 
1056-1057 
1057-1059 
1059-1067 



1067-1068 
1068-1071 
1(771-1078 
1078-1081 
1081-1118 
1118-1143 
114.3-1180 
1180-1183 
1183-1185 
1185-1195 
1195-1203 
1203-1204 



Latin Emperors of Constantinople. 



Baldwin . 

Henry, his brother. . 
Peter de Courtenay. 



1204-1200 
1206-1216 
1216-1218 



Robert de Courtenay 1921-1228 

Baldwin II., de Courtenay. 1228-1261 



Greelc Emperors at JVica^.a. 



Theodore Lascaris 1 120-1-1222 1 John Lascaris and Michael 

John Ducas Vatatzes 1222-1225 | Palaeologus 1259-1231 

Theodore Lascaris II 1255-1259 | 



Greek Emperors after tlie return to Constantinople. 



Michael Palpeologus 1201-1282 

Andronicus the Elder 1282-1332 

Andronicus the Lounger. . . 1328-1341 
John Palaeologus and John 
Cantacuzenus 1341-1391 



John Cantacuzenns abdi- 
cates 1.S55 

Manuel Palaeologus 1391-1424 

John PaL-Bologus II 1424-1448 

Constantino Palaeologus 1448-1453 



498 



Appendix. 



Kings of Jerusalem. 



Godfrey of Bouillon 1099-1100 

Baldwin I 1100-1118 

Baldwin II. du Bourcq 1118-1131 

Fnlk 1131-1144 

Baldwin III 114^1-1163 

A::iaury 1 110;i-1173 



Baldwin IV., the Leper. . . . 1173-1185 

Baldwin V 118.>-11S6 

Gny of Lu^ignan 1 180-1192 

Henry of Champagne 119::i-1197 

Aniaury II. of Lusignan.... 1197-l'-'0o 
John of Bricune 1210-1237 



Kings of France. 



Zierovin(jians. 

Pharamond (?) 420-427 

Clodion 427-448 

MeroviBUS 448-1.58 

Childeric 458-481 

Clovis I., the Great 481-511 

Thierry, King of Metz 511-534 

Clodorair 511-524 

Childebert 511-558 

Clotaire 1 561-501 

Caribert 501-567 

Gontran 501-592 

Chilperic 1 561^84 

Sigebert 561-575 

Clotaire 584-628 

Dagobert 1 028-6.38 

Clovis II 038-656 

Clotaire III 056-670 

Childeric II 070-073 

Thierry III 073-691 

Clovis III 691-693 

Childebert III 695-711 

Dagobert II 711-715 

Chilperic II 710-720 

Thierry IV 

Interregnum of five years. 

Childeric III 742-752 

Carloxingians. 

Pepin the Short 752-768 

Charlemagne 768-814 

Louis I., tlie Debonnaire 814-840 

Charles II., the Bald 840-S77 

Louid II., the Stammerer 877-879 



Louis III asa-882 

Carloman 880-884 

Charles the Fat 884-887 

Eudes 887-898 

Charles the Simple 893-929 

Ptobert 922-923 

Ilaoul 92.3-936 

Louis IV., d'Outremer 936-954 

Lothaire 954-986 

Louis V. , the Idler 980-987 



987-996 
996-1031 
1031-1060 
1060-1108 
1108-1137 
1137-1180 
1180-1223 
1223-1226 
1226-1270 
1270-1285 
1314-1316 



1316-1323 
1322-1.S28 
1328-1350 
13.50-1364 
1364-1380 



Ilugh Capet 

Kobert 

Henry I 

Philip I 

Louis v., the Fat 

Louis VII., the Young 

Philip II., Augustus 

Louis VIII., the Lion 

Louis IX., the Saint 

Philip IIL, the Bold 

Louis X., le Hut in 

Interregnum of five months, 

John I., eight days. 

Philip v., the Long 

Charles IV., the Fair 

Philip VL, of Valois 

John II., the Good 

Charles V., the Wise 

Charles VI. , the Well-be- 
loved 

Charles VII., the Victo- 
rious 



1380-1423 
1423-1461 



Kings of England. 



Anjlo-Saxon Line. 



Egbert, King 
Imd 


of 


all Eng- 


827-837 


Echelwolf 

Ethelbald 

Ethelbert 

Ethelredl 

Alfred the Great. 
Edward I 




8;37'-858 
8.58-860 
860-866 
866^^71 
871-900 
900-924 
924-940 


Edmund I . . . . 
Edred 






940-946 
946-955 


Edwy . . . 






955-959 


Edgard 






9.59-975 


Edward II., the M 
EthelrcdII 


artyr ... 


975-978 
973-1013 



SwejTi ...* 

Edmund II 

Canute the Great 

Harold I 

Hardicanute 

Edward IIL, the Confessor, 

Harold 

Nonnan Line. 
William I., the Conqueror. 

William II., Eufiis 

Henry I., Beauclerc 

Stephen of Blois 

Henry II., Plantagonet 

Richard I., Coeur de Lion. . 

John Lackland 

Henry III 



1013-1015 
1016-1017 
1015-1037 
1037-1040 
1040-1042 
1042-1056 
1056-1066 



lOGO-1087 
1037-1100 
1100-1135 
1135-1154 
115-1-1189 
1189-1190 
1199-1216 
1210-1273 



Appexdix. 



499 



Kings of England — Co7itinuei 



Edward I., Lonsc^lianks 

Edward II. of Caernarvon. 
Edward III. of Windsor . . . 
Richard II. of Bordeaux. . . 



1272-1307 I Tloufie of Lancaster. 

1307-1327 Henry IV. of Lancaster. . . . 1399-1413 

1327-1377 Henry V 1413-1422 

1377-1399 1 Henry YI 1422-1461 



Emperors of the West, or of Germany. 



Charlemagne 800-814 

Louis le Debonnaire 814-840 

Lothaire 1 840-855 

Louis II 855-875 

Charles the Bald 875-^77 

Interregnum of three years. 

Charles the Fat 

Gui of Spoleto 

Lambert 

Arnulf 

Louis in 899-905 

Berenger 905-924 

Conrad I., king 911-918 

Henry the Fowler, king. . . . 918-936 

Otho the Great 936-973 

Otholl 973-983 

Otho III 983-1002 

Henry II., the Saint 1002-1024 

Conrad II., the Salic 1024-1039 

Henry III., the Black 1039-1056 

Henry IV 1056-1106 

Henry V 1106-1125 

Lothaire II 1125-1137 

Courad HI 1138-1152 



Frederick I., Barbarossa. . . 1152-1190 

Henry VI 1190-1197 

Philip 1198-1208 

Otho IV 1198-1218 

Frederick II 1212-1250 

Conrad IV 1250-1254 

William 1254-1256 

The long interregnum un- 
til 1273 

Rudolph of Hapsburg 1273-1291 

Adolph of Nassau 1292-1298 

Albert of Austria 1298-1308 

Henry VII. of Luxem- 
bourg 1308-1313 

Louis of Bavaria 1314-1347 

Charles IV 1347-1378 

Wenceslaus 1378-1400 

Robert, Palatine of the 

Rhine 1400-1410 

Josse of Moravia, four 

months 1410-1410 

Sigismund 1410-1437 

Albert II. of Austria 1438-1439 

Frederick III. . . 1440-1493 



Caliphs of the East. 



Jtlohammed G22-632 

Abu Bekir 632-634 

Omar 634-644 

Othman 644-6.56 

All 656-061 

Hassan 661-061 

Moaviah, alone 661-680 

Yesid 1 680-0a3 

Moaviah II 683-684 

Merwan 1 684-085 

Abd-el-Melek 685-705 

Walid 1 705-715 

Soliman 715-717 

Omar II 717-720 

Yesid II 720-724 

Hesham 724-743 

Walid II 743-744 

Yesid III 744-744 

Ibrahim 744-744 

Mer\van II 744-750 

Abul-Abbas 750-754 

Abu-Jaafar Al-Mansur 754-755 

Mohammed Mahadi 775-784 

Hadi 784-788 

Harun-al Rashid 780-809 

Amin 809-813 

Al-Mamun 813-833 

Motassem 833-842 

Vathek-Billah 842-847 



Mutawakel 847-861 

Mustanser 861-862 

Mustam-Billah 802-866 

Mutaz 866-869 

Al-Muhtadi-Billah 869-870 

Muhtamed-Billah 870-892 • 

Muhtaded-Billah. 892-902 

Al-Muktafi-Billah 902-908 

Al-Muktader-Billah 908-933 

Kaher 932-9^4 

Rhadi 934-940 

Muhtaki 940-944 

JNfustakfi 944-946 

Muthi 946-974 

Thai 974-991 

Kader 991-1031 

Kaim-Bamrillah 1031-1075 

Muktadi-Bamrillah 1075-1094 

Mustadher 1094-1118 

Mustarshed 1118-1134 

Rasheld 1134-1136 

Al-Muktafl n 1136-1160 

Mustanjed llGO-1170 

Mustadi 1170-1180 

Nasser 1180-1225 

Daher 1225-1226 

Mustanser 1226-1243 

Mustazem 12-13-1258 

The Sultans replace the Caliphs. 



500 



Appexdix. 



Sidfans of the Otfoman Turks 



Togrul BcK, Otliman or Os- 
man, Founder of the Em 
l)ire 


. 1299-1326 
. 1:326-1360 
. 1:360-1:389 
. 1389-1402 

Sulta7is C 

. 1145-1173 
. 1173-1193 
. 119:3-1198 
. 1198-1200 
. 1200-1218 
. 1218-1238 
. 12:38-1240 
. 1240-1249 
. 1249-1250 

Uf/Oth Ki) 

. . . 46;>-4S4 
. . . 484-507 


Soliman I 


.. 1402-1410 


MusaShelobi 

Mohammed I 

Ami.raL 11 


.. 1410-1413 
. . 14i;3-1421 
. . 1421 1451 


Auiurat I. 


Mohammed II 


. . 1451-1481 


liayazid (.Bajazet) I. 

Nnr-od-Dia Mahmoud 

fcjaladin 

ilalek-el-Aziz 

Malek-el-Mautiur 

Safadin 

Malek-el-Kamel 

Malek-Adel 

Malek-Saleh 

]Malek-cl-3Ioadham 

VL 


Shajeredhur 

Ibeg, live days 

]Malek-el-Ascraf Musa . . 
Azzcd-Din-Moez-Ibeg . . 

]Slur-ed-Din Ah 

Kiituz 

IJibars Bondokhars 

Kehuin 

Khatil 

KJS of Sjxmi. 
Risebnt 


.. i?.r:o-i250 

.. liir>0-1250 
. . 1250-1254 
.. 1254-1257 
. . 1257-1259 
. 1259-1260 
. . 1260-1277 
. . 1277-1290 
12C0 

.... 612-020 


Alaric 


Recared II 

Sumtilla 

Sisenand 

Chmtihi 

Tal""a or Ful<^a 


.... 620-621 


Theodoric the Great 

Amalaric 


. . . 507-520 
. . . 526-531 


.... 621-6:31 
.... 631-6:36 


Theudis 


. . . 531-543 
. . . 548-549 
. . . 550-554 

554 567 


.... 6:36-640 
640-642 


Adla ... 

A fhnnnrrilf] 


Chindasvind 

Recesvind 


.... 642-653 
65:3-673 




. 567-572 


. . . 072-680 


Leovisild 

Eecared I 

Linva II 


. . . 572-586 
. . . 586-601 
. . . 601-603 
. . , 603-612 


Ervia: 


. . . 680-687 


Effiza 

Vitiza .... 


.... 687-701 
701-710 




Rodcric 


.... 710-713 


Goutmart 


. . . 010-610 





CIIEISTIAN KINGDOMS OF SPAIN. 
Kings of Leon and of ilia Asturias. 



Pcla2;nis (Pclayo) 

Favila 


718-737 


Garcias. 


910-913 


. . . 737-739 


Ordono II 


. . 914-923 


Alfonso I., the CathoUc. . . 


. . . 739-757 


Froila II 


. . . 923-924 


Froila I 


. . . 757-768 


Alfonso IV 


... 924-927 


Aureho 


. . . 768-774 


Ramiro II 


. . . 927-950 


Silo 


. . . 77-4-783 


Ordono in 


... 950-9.55 


Maurecjat 


. . . 783-788 


Sanchol.. the Great.... 


. . . 955-967 




. . . 788-791 


Ramiro HI 

Bermudo II 


. . . 967-982 


Alfonso II., the Chaste . . . 


. . . 791-840 


... 982-999 


Ramiro I 


. . . 842-852 


Alfonso V 


... 999-1027 


Ordono 


. . . 850-866 
. . . 806-910 


Bermudo III . . 


1027-1037 


Alfonso III., the Great. . . . 







lungs of Castile. 
(Castile erected a kingdom in 



Ferdinand 1 1037-1065 

Sancho II . 1065-1072 

Alfonso VI 1072-1109 

Urraca and Alfonso VII. . . 1109-1126 

Alfonso A^III 1126-1157 

Saucho III 1157-1158 



Ferdinand II 1158-1158 

Alfonso IX., the Good 1158-1214 

Henry l 1214-1217 

St. Ferdinand III 1217-1252 

Alfonso X., the Wise 1252-1284 

Sancho IV 1234-1295 



Appendix. 



501 



Kings of Castile — Continued. 



Ferdinand IV 129;^1312 

Alf oii>>o XI 1312-1350 

Pedro the Cruel 135U-13(J8 

Henry II 13(58-1379 

Juan 1 1379-1360 

lieury lU 1390-1400 



Juan II 1406-1454 

Henry IV 1454-1474 

It-abella marries Ferdinand 

Y. of Aragon, and the two 

kingdoms are thus united, 1474 



Kings of Aragon. 



Ilamiro 1035-1063 

Sancho Ramirez 1063-1094 

Pedro 1 1094-1104 

Alfonso 1 1104-li;i4 

RamiroII 1134-1137 

Doiia Fetronilla and Ray- 
mond Berenger 1187-1163 

Alfonso II 1162-1198 

Pedro II 1196-1213 

James the Conqueror 1213-1276 

Pedro in 1276-1285 



Alfonso III 1285-1291 

James II 1291-1327 

Alfonso IV 1327-1336 

Pedro IV 1336-1387 

Juan 1 1387-1395 

Martin 1395-1410 

Ferdinand IV., the Just... 1412-1416 

Alfonso V 1416-1453 

Juan II 14.58-1479 

Ferdinand V 1479-1516 

Union of Castile and Aragon. 



Kings of Naples. 



Roger 1137-11.54 

William I., the Bad 11.54-1166 

William II., the Good 1166-1183 

Tancred 1188-1194 

William III 1194-1194 

Constance and Henry 1194-1197 

Frederick 1197-1197 

Conrad 1 12.50-12.54 

Conradin 1254-1253 



Manfred 125&-1266 

Charles of Anjou 1266-12S5 

Charles II 1285-1309 

Robert the Wise 1.309-1343 

Joanna 1 1.343-1.382 

Charles III 1382-1.386 

Ladislaus 1386-1414 

Joanna II 1414-1435 

Alfonso of Aragon 1435-1458 



Catholic Histories for Catholic Schools 



THE YOUNG CATHOLIC'S 

Series of Histories. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Adapted from the French of Fr. Gazeau, S.J, 



ROMAN HISTORY. 

Adapted from the French of Fr. Gazeau, S.J. 



HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 

Adapted from the French of Fr. Gazeau, S.J. 



MODERN HISTORY. 

Adapted from the French of Fr. Gazeau, S.J. [In press.] 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

By J. R. G. Hassard. With Introduction by Bp. Spalding. 



INTRODUCTORY HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 

On tlie Catechetical Plan. 



Special Terms for Introduction, 



The Catholic PubBication Society Co., 

9 Barclay Street, New York. 



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